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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES |
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1. |
With the exception of Strabo's work, the works in this section are
listed in the language of the original. Humboldt's major works (listed
here as Nos. 45-47, 59-60) have been republished in many languages, but
the reader cannot rely fully on correctness in the translations. This is
even more true of the two volumes of Ritter's essays (Nos. 50 and 61) which
were translated into English by W. L. Gage and published as Geographical
Studies, Boston 1861 and Comparative Geography, Philadelphia,
1865. |
| 35 |
2. |
On viewpoints concerning geography in ancient
times, the standard reference work in English is Bunbury's History of
Ancient Geography (402), which has recently been republished. A shorter
study, recently revised, is that of Tozer (403). Berger's analysis
of the character of the work done in different schools is more nearly comparable
with the classifications familiar to modern geographers (404). For
the entire period from classical times to the early nineteenth century,
there is no counterpart in English for Peschel's richly documented history
(401),
which however is less pertinent for the purpose of this chapter than Wisotski's
detailed study of geographic thought in the late eighteenth century (1). |
| 57 |
3. |
The corrections of translations and paraphrases
in this and a number of the following footnotes were deemed necessary because
of errors published in the Annals the previous year. In the period
since, no one, to my knowledge, has challenged the reliability of these
corrections. |
| 58 |
4. |
Much of this discussion of the work of Humboldt
and Ritter has subsequently been confirmed and amplified by George Tatham,
"Geography in the Nineteenth Century," in "Geography in the Twentieth
Century," edited by Griffith Taylor, New York, 1951, pp. 42-59; and,
with respect to Humboldt, by Rayfred L. Stevens-Middleton, in La Obra
de Alexander von Humboldt en Mexico, publ. no. 202, Instituto Panamericano
de Geografia-e Historia, Mexico, D.F. 1956, pp. 199-246. The commemoration
in 1959 of the hundredth anniversary of the death of both of these "founders"
of the field led to publication of numerous studies of their work by German
geographers. |
| 67 |
5. |
The last two sentences of the paragraph are
in error. While Humboldt included man, as the highest organism, in his
"physical geography," he did not include the realm of the intellect or
art, even though he recognized that the distinction was in a sense unreal
(60, 69, 386); see Perspective…, footnote to page 68. |
| 68 |
6. |
Ritter's writings are somewhat inconsistent
in use of the term "nature"; see Perspective…, footnote to page
48. |
| 74 |
7. |
Leo Waibel has subsequently shown the soundness
of Ritter's theory of the origin of the plantation system, in contrast
to theories of several later students, Geographical Review 32 (1942),
p. 307-310. |
| 83 |
8. |
Ritter was much more definite than these sentences
indicate in restricting the scope of geography to the earth shell; see
Perspective…,
footnote to page 22. |
| 85 |
9. |
The statement concerning Mary Somerville was
based on the source named in the next sentence, Spörer. J. N. L. Baker
finds this doubtful, in his study of "Mary Somerville and Geography in
England," Geographical Journal, CXI (1948), 207-22. |
| 85. |
10. |
Guyot, though of French Hugenot parentage, had
received the greater part of his advanced training in Germany, particularly
in Berlin where, almost certainly, he studied under Ritter. At one time
he had started to translate several portions of Ritter's work into French,
but evidently never carried it through. Political difficulties in 1848
caused him to leave Switzerland and come to America. The Lowell Lectures
which he delivered in French at Harvard, in 1848-49, on "Comparative Physical
Geography in its Relation to the History on Mankind," were translated into
English and published in 1849 as The Earth and Man (64). He was
long employed by the Smithsonian Institute and in 1854 was appointed Professor
of Geology and Physical Geography at Princeton, retaining that position
until his death in 1884. In addition to an extensive series of Meteorological
and Physical Tables, prepared for the Smithsonian Institute (his work
in this field stimulated the establishment at the U.S. Weather Bureau),
he published a series of school geographies. See the "Memoir" by James
D. Dana, (410). |
| 90 |
11. |
The most thorough-going and authoritative study
of Ratzel's concepts and their origins, has subsequently been made by Johannes
Steinmetzler in a doctoral dissertation, "Die Anthropogeographie Friedrich
Ratzels und ihre ideengeschichtliches Würzeln," published in Bonner
Geographische Adhandlungen, Heft 19, 1956. |
| 94 |
12. |
Under the Nazi regime, Hettner was not permitted
to publish, but his Allgemeine Geographie des Menschen was published
posthumously, in 1947. It includes a detailed sketch of his professional
background and career, by Schmitthenner. |
| 100 |
13. |
DeMartonne, writing in 1924, found that geography
in France had developed as an emancipation from the dominance of history
(412; see also 415). In the present work, views of geography
by French students are limited largely to the writings of Vidal de la Blache,
Brunhes, and Vallaux; a much larger number are considered in Perspective…,
pages 4, 188-89. |
| 100 |
14. |
Thanks to the common practice in British geography
of discussing methodological operations without reference to sources, a
number of important papers did not come to the author's attention. Particularly
notable are early papers by MacKinder (422 and 423) and the
collection of Herbertson's notes published after his death in 1915 (424).
Keltie's
brief outline of "The Position of Geography in British Universities" in
1921 contained much information on the background of geographic thought
in Britain, as well as direct quotations of views held at that time (411).
The relatively larger number of methodological papers published in recent
years by British geographers are considered in Perspective…, pages
4-7, 189-91. |
| 112 |
15. |
The paper by Penck was published in this country,
in Congress of Arts and Science, Universal Exposition, St. Louis,
1904, Howard J. Rogers, editor, Boston, 1906, but the passage mentioned
here was not included in the American publication. |
| 119 |
16. |
For further discussion of the concept of the
earth shell as defining the physical scope of geography, see Perspective…,
pages 22-25. |
| 122 |
17. |
Concerning the position of Ratzel and Semple
on the question of "geographic determinism," however, see Perspective…,
footnote 5 on page 56. |
| 122 |
18. |
The most vigorous later-day upholder of the
"environmentalist concept" is Griffith Taylor (432, 434), who provided
a record of his own development in geographic work, and that of Australian
geography in general (451); see also Perspective…, pages
58, 62. |
| 123 |
19. |
Although Barrows' presidential address was much
discussed in this country at the time, and has been frequently cited in
methodological writings of foreign students, its influence among American
geographers was short-lived, if we except the work of George Renner (436). |
| 134 |
20. |
Since Kant's statement about geography has subsequently
appeared in several articles in somewhat different form, it may be noted--as
explained in footnote 3 on pp. 38 f.--that (1) the form here presented
is probably the most nearly correct presentation of what Kant actually
said; (2) any differences in the several sources are of little significance
so far as this particular section of his lectures is concerned; and (3)
in contrast to other portions of the published versions of Kant's lectures,
which are either of doubtful authenticity or were based on what he presented
in the first few years of his teaching, the section here translated is
based on a full and fairly reliable record of his lectures in 1775, in
mid-career.
Whatever the merit of Kant's statement, it cannot be assumed to have
had significant influence on the subsequent development of geographic thought;
see Perspective…, page 180, and my article on "The Concept of Geography
as a Science of Space, from Kant and Humboldt to Hettner," Annals,
Association of American Geographers, XLVIII (1958), 97-108. |
| 135 |
21. |
Additional statements of the views of Humboldt
and Ritter on this topic are included in a previous chapter, page 77, and
more particularly in my paper of 1958, cited in the preceding note, including
full translation of his basic statement of 1793, from the original Latin. |
| 139 |
22. |
Almost simultaneously and evidently independently,
Krebs expressed concepts of geography which, as he noted, were very similar
to Hettner's (416). |
| 140 |
23. |
That Hettner was not aware of Humboldt's statement
on this topic was confirmed by him in personal letter to me. Subsequent
investigation has failed to find any clear evidence of connection between
Kant and Humboldt or between either of them and Hettner on this concept;
see my article of 1958, cited in Note 20. |
| 140 |
24. |
This concept of the logical position of geography
among the sciences was included here, and is repeated with minor alteration
and amplification in the more recent study, because it seems to explain
characteristics of geography as determined from empirical evidence; it
is not to be considered as a basic and necessary proposition on which those
findings depend. See Perspective…, pages 10 f., 173-82. |
| 142 |
25. |
Ritter's expression is explained more fully
on page 57, and still further in Perspective…, footnote on page
66; see also, in the same work, the footnote on page 116. |
| 144 |
26. |
This statement is found to be an inadequate
answer to Kraft's question, which is re-considered in Perspective…,
pages 41-47. |
| 175 |
27. |
This section on "The Relation of History to
Geography" might more logically have been placed later, and the student
may find it less disrupting to his thought to postpone reading it till
after Section X. Its brevity, in comparison with subsequent sections, is
not to be taken as a measure of the importance of the topic, but as a measure
of the small degree to which it appeared, at the time, to constitute a
topic of controversy among geographers in this country. Likewise it reflects
the fact that the writer found himself in complete agreement with Hettner's
treatment of the question which was followed consistently throughout the
section (with one exception specifically noted on page 186 f.). The subject
is reconsidered, in Chapter VII of Perspective…, with a change noted
below. |
| 177 |
28. |
These views of Hettner were vigorously opposed
by Winkler, (418, 419) who argued that geography must be a science
of time as well as of space, that landscapes form objects of study in geography
(see Chap. IX in this volume) and therefore an essential theme in geography
is the history of the cultural landscape (Landschaft). See also
note 38 below. |
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29. |
This study by Broek should rather have been
cited as an appropriate example of "comparative historical geography" discussed
later, on page 187. |
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30. |
Meigs' study utilizing the relative number of
young non-bearing fruit trees as an index of regional trends illustrates
the thought here. These trees, of which no account is taken in production
statistics, are a significant feature in the present worlding economy of
a region, and at a future date will be a significant feature in a different
way. He is interested in the situation at each of those times, not primarily
interested
in the process of growth of the orchards (450). |
| 184 |
31. |
MacKinder spoke similarly, in 1931, of the "danger
that we should mix history with geography without seeing clearly what we
are doing." Perhaps he has offered a key in the following distinction:
"Geography should, as I see it, be a physiological and anatomical study
rather than a study in development...it should be a description, with causal
relations in a dynamic rather than genetic sense." (429, 268;
italics added; see also the similar discussion in this volume, page 358). |
| 187 |
32. |
The consideration presented in the remainder
of this chapter is re-examined, with significant change in conclusions,
in
Perspective…, pages 102-106. |
| 189 |
33. |
At the time of writing, in 1939, the restriction
considered in this chapter was the subject of vigorous discussion in the
methodological writings of German and American geographers. I do not know
of any American geographers who now support it. |
| 195 |
34 |
These statements made by Finch in a symposium
should not be presumed to represent his considered judgment; they were
used here because they present clearly the thinking of many who maintained
the limitation. |
| 237 |
35. |
The term "areal differentiation," as used here
and in innumerable other places in this volume, has been found to lead
easily to misunderstandings, so that the author now uses rather the term
"areal variation"; see Perspective…, pp. 12-21. |
| 242 |
36. |
The author has since concluded that geographers,
in fact and for logical reasons, depend on an additional criterion in measuring
the significance of areal variations, namely, the significance to man;
see Perspective…, pages 41-47. |
| 252 |
37. |
While no American geographer today, so far as
I know,asserts that a region is an object, discussions of the concept of
regions are nonetheless frequently based on assumptions which in fact imply
such a belief. |
| 263 |
38. |
On the basis of similar assumptions, Winkler,
writing in 1938, had urged the logical reorganization of general (systematic)
geography, in terms of Landschaft morphology, physiology, chronology,
chorology, and system of types. Geomorphology, climatology, etc., were
dismissed to other disciplines (442). |
| 285 |
39. |
The consideration of regions in this chapter
and in portions of the following chapter, requires significant modifications
in the light of subsequent developments in concepts of regions; these are
analyzed in Perspective…, pp. 129-43. |
| 294 |
40. |
In 1914 Joerg presented an illuminating analysis
of six published maps of "natural regions" of North America and of fifteen
other divisions of the continent, each based on a single natural element--physiography,
climate, or vegetation (443). The study was based on thorough examination
of the European literature, including, in addition to the studies of Herbertson,
Hettner and Passarge, a major example of the school of Vidal de la Blache,
by Gallois (437). It is of historic interest to note that a committee
of American geographers at that time decided to postpone, as "a work of
a different and higher order," the construction of a map of "natural regions"
of the United States, which would supply "the logical units of regional
investigation" (444). Instead, they decided to concentrate efforts
on the division of the United States into physiographic units--the work
ultiniately carried through by the late Professor Fenneman. |
| 299 |
41. |
The thesis of this paragraph, which is assumed
in numerous subsequent discussions as it has long been assumed by geographers
generally--namely, that it is necessary in geography to distinguish among
all the factors of environment between those of human origin and those
of natural origin--is opposed in Perspective…, pp. 48-64. |
| 306 |
42. |
This problem was considered at the time of writing
as of almost exclusively academic interest. Since then, however, geographers
in many countries have been called on to participate in studies of planning
in which it may be necessary at any early stage to determine the most suitable
regional divisions of an area, or of a state, for purposes of economic
planning, less commonly for political subdivisions. The published literature
on this subject is now large, that unpublished no doubt far more voluminous. |
| 308 |
43. |
John K. Wright had noted a number of examples
from more remote times in suggesting that as one aspect of the effect of
geographic conditions on human thought, geographers might study "the impress
of geographical conditions themselves upon the nature of geographical thought"--study
he would call "the geographic history of geography" (405). |
| 309 |
44. |
In addition, the factor of areal size itself
makes for regional division. Lösch, among others, has pointed out
that in a theoretical inland plain completely homogenous in its natural
features and in its political and cultural background, the needs of urban-rural
trade and for major centers of urban concentration will lead to the development
of distinct economic regions (449). |
| 331 |
45. |
Mark Jefferson's presidential address of 1916
contained a very illuminating suggestion for arriving at significant regional
division, namely by mapping cities and towns and observing the groupings
of these human foci in contrast with the less differentiated rural population
(446). |
| 379 |
46. |
In the subsequent discussion, the term "nomothetic"
is considered to include the construction of generic concepts as well as
laws; the term "unique" is not to be considered in the sense of "unusual,"
but of "individual." |
| 382 |
47. |
The question under discussion in much of the
remainder of this chapter--namely, the degree to which geography seeks
to establish generic principles or laws and the extent to which it is concerned
with individual cases--is re-considered more directly in Perspective…,
pages 147-72. While that discussion leads to no change in the essential
conclusion that geography is concerned with both, it includes new material
leading to additional conclusions of importance. |
| 386 |
48. |
On generic concepts particularly in regard to
landforms, there is much of value in such earlier studies as those of Hettner
(438),
William Morris Davis (445), and Campbell (447). |
| 397 |
49. |
The discussion, in various passages in this
chapter, of the comparison and relations between systematic and regional
geography depicts a sharp dichotomy between the two approaches. Reconsideration
of the question has led to the conclusion that what we have in fact is
a continuum of gradations from the more specialized topical studies to
the more nearly completely regional; see Perspective…, pp. 113-29. |
| 399 |
50. |
The two previous paragraphs, as well as others
in the following pages were based on the widely-held assumption that all
the various "natural" aspects of geography constituted one branch of the
field, physical geography, in contrast to the other main part, human geography.
The author has opposed this view in oral discussions and correspondence
for more than a decade, and has recorded the objections in Perspective…,
pages 65-80. |
| 400 |
51. |
A brief paper by Zuber, in 1937, compares the
academic relations of the sciences concerned with planning to their relations
in planning work (456; see also the papers listed as ##s 451-460). |
| 401 |
52. |
While the conclusion is surely correct as an
empirical statement based on the works which their authors call "political
geography," this may represent failure of geographers to recognize the
need for other types of studies which should be included under this head.
Subsequent development of views on this field are discussed in the following
studies by this author: "The Functional Approach in Political Geography,"
Annals,
Association of American Geographers, XL (1950), pp. 95-130; "Political
Geography" in American Geography: "Inventory and Prospect," Preston E.
James and Clarence F. Jones, eds. Syracuse 1954, pp. 162-225; and "Political
Geography in the Modern World," Conflict Resolution IV(1960), pp.
52-66. |
| 405 |
53. |
The fact that little consideration is given
in this volume to the work of geographers in governmental agencies is due
to the nature of such work, in which the author subsequently participated
for several years, as applied geography. Such studies, as previously noted
(pages 399 f.), cannot readily be classified in any theoretical branch
of geography, or indeed within science itself. The nature of the work in
practical problems is dictated on the one hand by the problems themselves
and on the other by the particular abilities of the individuals studying
them. |
| 423 |
54. |
The question of the relation of geomorphology
to the field of geography, which is avoided here as it is throughout this
volume, is examined at length in Perspective…, pages 84-96. |
| 433 |
55. |
This statement assumes much too high a degree
of certainty as necessary for the term "prediction"; see Perspective…,
footnote
10 on page 165. |
| 437 |
56. |
This list should have included Wellington Jones'
short paper of 1930 (448). That was the first presentation of the
"fractional method" of field analysis worked out by the spring field group,
later carried out more fully by Finch (285) and subsequently adapted
for use in planning surveys, as described by Hudson (458, 459). |
| 455 |
57. |
This sentence, which might well be emphasized,
is expanded further in Perspective…, page 164. |