Syllabus
Class Schedule
Grand Challeges
Writing a Proposal
Formulating a Hypothesis
Web Resources
Critically
Reviewing/Evaluating Articles
Reference Guide
Literature Review
Methods
Surveys
Results
Policy
|
Syllabus
Environmental
Problem Solving
GEOG 4742 Environments
& People
ENVS 4800 Critical Thinking in Environmental Studies
Offered:
Fall 2006
Time: Tuesdays 9:00 AM – 11:50 AM
Location: Guggenheim 201E
Instructor: Peter Blanken, Guggenheim 201C, 303-492-5887
Office
Hours: M-W-F 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM or by appointment
Objective
To
synthesize the skills and knowledge obtained throughout your program
and apply
them to study a real-world environmental problem through the
development of critical thinking skills in the areas of reading, data
analysis and evaluation, and oral and written communication.
Overview
Students
will identify an environmental problem that interests them. The problem
must
clearly contain and identify both social and scientific issues. The
challenge
is to develop a practical, attainable solution that has a strong
scientific
foundation, yet recognizes social issues, factors, and constraints.
Students will learn how to:
·
develop
a research proposal
·
critically
review background information
·
develop
a methodology
·
analyze
data
·
present
results
·
formulate
a policy statement describing an attainable solution
Students
successfully completing this course will have demonstrated the ability
to:
·
use
technology to aid in data collection or present results
·
critically
evaluate the results of others
·
integrate
the natural and social sciences
·
communicate
their findings both in written and oral form
Examples
of possible research topics include but are not limited to:
·
The
impacts of climate change on the quality of human life
·
The
social implications of greenhouse gas emission reductions
·
The
impacts of urban sprawl on the biosphere
·
The
development of sustainable water resources in dry regions
·
Assessing
the impacts of population growth on natural ecosystems
Students
may either work individually, or in pairs. If in pairs, students must
identify
a "social" and a "natural" science person.
Assessment
|
|
Written (%)
|
Oral (%)
|
|
Proposal
|
5
|
5
|
|
Literature
Review
|
10
|
5
|
|
Methodology
|
15
|
5
|
|
Results
|
20
|
5
|
|
Policy
Statement
|
10
|
5
|
|
Various
Assignments
|
10
|
|
|
|
|
|
Attendance
miss 0: 5
miss 1: 4
miss 2: 3
miss 3: 2
miss 4: 1
miss 5: 0
|
5
|
|
The
numerical to letter grade conversion is as follows (subject to change):
|
A
|
95-100
|
C
|
73-75
|
|
A-
|
90-94
|
C-
|
70-72
|
|
B+
|
86-89
|
D+
|
66-69
|
|
B
|
83-85
|
D
|
63-65
|
|
B-
|
80-82
|
D-
|
60-62
|
|
C+
|
76-79
|
F
|
59 or
below
|
Presentations
and Due Dates
All
students are required to present their material in both oral and
written
formats. Oral presentations will not be long (approximately 3-5
minutes).
Written material must be typed and
double-spaced. Each section of the course (e.g. Proposal, Literature
Review,
etc.) will be assembled by each student resulting in a final document
representative of the course that could serve, for example, as
part of a portfolio
for
employment considerations.
Only
written documentation from a physician is accepted as an excuse to miss
a
deadline. The schedule for oral presentations appears on the Class Schedule document, and the
accompanying written portion is due no later than one week after the
oral
portion was presented. 10% per day will be deducted for late
assignments.
Optional
Texts
These
texts that are available in the bookstore will be helpful in the course:
Pocket Guide to Technical
Writing, 3rd Edition.
2004. William S. Pfeiffer ($22.00
new; $16.50 used)
Writing Successful Science
Proposals.
2000. Andrew J. Friedman and Carol L. Folt ($16.00
new; $12.00 used)
Statement on Disabilities
If you qualify for accommodations because of a
disability, please
submit a letter to me from Disability Services in a timely manner so
that your needs may be addressed. Disability Services determines
accommodations based on documented disabilities. Contact:
303-492-8671, Willard 322, and http://www.colorado.edu/disabilityservices
.
Religious Obligations: Conflicts with Scheduled Exams,
Assignments
or Class Attendance
I will make every effort to accommodate all students who,
because of
religious obligations, have conflicts with scheduled exams,
assignments, or other required attendance, provided you notify me
well in advance of the scheduled conflict. Whenever possible, students
should notify me at least two weeks in advance of the conflict to
request special accommodation. If the conflict is legitimate, I will
provide the opportunity for alternative time to write the exam or
submit an assignment. See campus policy details at http://www.colorado.edu/policies/fac_relig.html.
Student Classroom and Course-Related Behavior
Students and faculty each have responsibility for maintaining
an
appropriate learning environment. Students who fail to adhere to such
behavioral standards may be subject to discipline. Faculty have the
professional responsibility to treat all students with understanding,
dignity and respect, to guide classroom discussion and to set
reasonable limits on the manner in which they and their students
express opinions. Professional courtesy and sensitivity are
especially important with respect to individuals and topics dealing
with differences of race, culture, religion, politics, sexual
orientation, gender variance, and nationalities. Class rosters
are provided to the instructor with the student's legal name. I will
gladly honor your request to address you by an alternate name or gender
pronoun. Please advise me of this preference early in the semester so
that I may make appropriate changes to my records. See polices at http://www.colorado.edu/policies/classbehavior.html
and at
http://www.colorado.edu/studentaffairs/judicialaffairs/code.html#student_code
Discrimination and Sexual
Harassment Policy
The University of Colorado at Boulder policy on
Discrimination and Harassment (http://www.colorado.edu/policies/discrimination.html,
the University of Colorado policy on Sexual Harassment and the
University of Colorado policy on Amorous Relationships applies to all
students, staff and faculty. Any student, staff or faculty member
who believes s/he has been the subject of discrimination or harassment
based upon race, color, national origin, sex, age, disability,
religion, sexual orientation, or veteran status should contact the
Office of Discrimination and Harassment (ODH) at 303-492-2127 or the
Office of Judicial Affairs at 303-492-5550. Information about the
ODH and the campus resources available to assist individuals regarding
discrimination or harassment can be obtained at http://www.colorado.edu/odh.
Academic Integrity, Ethics, and the Honor Code
All students of the University of Colorado at Boulder
are responsible
for knowing and adhering to the academic integrity policy of this
institution. Violations of this policy may include: cheating,
plagiarism, aid of academic dishonesty, fabrication, lying, bribery,
and threatening behavior. All incidents of academic misconduct
shall be reported to the Honor Code Council (honor@colorado.edu;
303-725-2273). Students who are found to be in violation of the
academic integrity policy will be subject to both academic sanctions
from the faculty member (including but not limited to an "F" on the
assignment, and a final course grade of "F") and non-academic
sanctions (including but not limited to university probation,
suspension, or expulsion). This covers all material in both the class
and laboratory assignments. If you are not clear on this policy, or
which actions potentially could violate the Honor Code, please talk to
your Instructor BEFORE you submit the work in question. Additional
information on the Honor Code can be found at http://www.colorado.edu/policies/honor.html
and at
http://www.colorado.edu/academics/honorcode/ .
Return to Top
Class Schedule
| Session |
Date |
Topic |
1
|
August 29
|
A: Introduction
B: Research Topics
C: Challenges in
Environmental Sciences: Part I
|
2
|
September
5
|
A: Challenges in
Environmental Sciences: Part II
B: Tools for Literature
Reviews
|
| 3 |
12
|
A: The place of Science:
Part I
B: The place of Science: Part II
|
4
|
19
|
A: Student
Presentations of Literature Reviews
B: Writing a Proposal:
Part I
|
5
|
26
|
A: Writing a Proposal:
Part II
B: Formulating a Hypothesis
|
6
|
October 3
|
A: Student
Presentations of Proposals
B: Developing a Methodology
|
7
|
10
|
A: Critically
Evaluating/Reviewing Articles: Part I
B: Critically
Evaluating/Reviewing Articles: Part II
|
| 8 |
17
|
Student
Presentations of Methodology
|
9
|
24
|
A: Presenting Results with
Impact: Oral
B: Data Collection Methods
|
10
|
31
|
A: Analyzing and
Interpreting Data: Part I
B: Analyzing and Interpreting
Data: Part II |
| 11 |
November
7
|
Student
Presentations of Results |
12
|
14
|
A: Formulating a Policy
Statement
B: Presenting Results
with
Impact: Written |
13
|
21
|
No Class - Fall Break
|
14
|
28
|
Careers
in
Earth/Environmental Sciences
|
15
|
December 5
|
Student
Presentations of Policy Statements |
16
|
12
|
Summary of Class |
Return to Top
Challenges
in Environmental Sciences
Background
- The National Science Foundation (NSF) asked the National
Research Council (NRC) to offer a judgement regarding the most
important environmental research challenges of the next generation:
"the areas most likely to yield
results of major scientific and practical importance if pursued
vigorously now"
- Recognized that every aspect of the environment is
connected to every other in some way, hence no branch of environmental
science can progress very far without drawing on knowledge from other
branches
- Tried to identify a small number of "grand challenges" in
environmental sciences - major scientific tasks that are compelling for
both intellectual and practical reasons, that offer potential for major
breakthroughs, and that are currently feasible.
- 17-member committee considered 200 nominations from the
scientific community
- selection criteria included:
- probability of significant scientific and practical payoff
- large scope
- relevance to important environmental issues
- feasibility
- timeliness
- requirement for multidisciplinary collaboration
The Grand Challenges
A. Biogeochemical Cycles
The Challenge is to:
Further our understanding of the Earth's major biogeochemical cycles,
evaluate how they are being perturbed by human activities, and
determine how they might be better stabilized.
What are biogeochemical cycles?
- Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
make up 95% of the biosphere mass on Earth and form the biochemical
foundation for life.
- The cycling of these through the Earth system in their
biological, geological, and chemical forms constitutes the
biogeochemical cycles
Important Research Areas are:
- Quantifying the sources and sinks, and gaining a better
understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical factors
regulating transformation between reservoirs
- Improved understanding of the interactions among the
various cycles
- Assessing anthropogenic perturbations of the cycles, and
developing a scientific basis for societal decisions about managing
these cycles
- Explore technical and institutional approaches to managing
anthropogenic perturbations
B. Biological Diversity and
Ecosystem Functioning
The Challenge is to:
Improve understanding of the factors affecting biological diversity and
ecosystem structure and functioning, including the role of human
activity.
Important Research Areas are:
- Improve tools for rapid assessment of diversity at all
scales - species, population, and ecosystem
- Produce a quantitative, process-based theory of biological
diversity at the largest possible variety of spatial and temporal scales
- Explore the relationship between diversity and ecosystem
functioning
- Develop and test techniques for modifying, creating, and
managing habitats that can sustain biological diversity, as well as
people and their activities
C. Climate Variability
The Challenge is to:
Increase our ability to predict climate variability, from extreme
events to decadal time scales; to understand how this variability may
change in the future; and to assess its impact on natural and human
systems.
Important Research Areas are:
- Improve observational capability
- Extend the record of observations
- Conduct diagnostic process studies
- Develop increasingly comprehensive models
- Conduct integrated impact assessments, and study human
responses to climate change
D. Hydrologic Forecasting
The Challenge is to:
To predict changes in freshwater resources and the environment caused
by floods, droughts, sedimentation, and contamination in a context of
growing demand on water resources.
Important Research Areas are:
- Improve understanding of hydrologic and geomorphic
responses to precipitation.
- Improve understanding of surface water generation and
transport
- Examine environmental stresses on aquatic ecosystems
- Explain the relationships between landscape change and
sediment fluxes
- Improve understanding of subsurface transport
- Map groundwater recharge and discharge vulnerability
E. Infectious Disease and the
Environment
The Challenge is to:
Understand the ecological and evolutionary aspects of infectious
disease; interactions among pathogens, hosts/receptors, and the
environment; make it possible to prevent changes in the infectivity of
pathogens.
Important Research Areas are:
- Examining the effects of environmental change as selection
agents on pathogen virulence and host resistance
- Explore the impacts of environmental change on the spread
and impacts of pathogens, parasites, and toxic organisms.
- Develop approaches to surveillance and monitoring
- Improve theoretical models of host-pathogen ecology
F. Institutes and Resource Use
The Challenge is to:
To develop a systematic understanding of the role of institutes
(markets, legal structures - formal and informal sets of
rules/regulations) in shaping systems for natural resources use,
extraction, waste disposal, and other environmental activities.
Important Research Areas are:
- Document the institutions governing critical lands,
resources, and environments
- Identify the performance attributes of these institutions
- Improve understanding of change in resource institutions
- Conceptualize and asses the effects of institutions for
managing global commons
G. Land-use Dynamics
The Challenge is to:
To develop a systematic understandings of changes in the land uses and
land covers that are critical to biogeochemical cycling, ecosystem
functioning and services, and human welfare.
Important Research Areas are:
- Develop long-term, regional databases for land uses, land
covers, and related social information
- Formulate spatially explicit and multisectoral land-change
theory
- Link land-change theory to space-based imagery
- Develop innovative applications of dynamic spatial
simulation techniques
H. Reinventing the Use of
Materials
The Challenge is to:
To develop a quantitative understanding of the global budgets and
cycles of key materials used by humanity and how the life cycles of
these materials may be modified.
What are Key Materials?
Reusable metals - copper, silver, zinc
Reusable substances - plastics and alloys
Hazardous materials - cadmium, mercury, lead
Hazardous substances - CFCs, pesticides, organic solvents
Important Research Areas are:
- Develop spatially explicit budgets for selected key
materials
- Develop methods for more complete cycling of technological
materials
- Determining how best to utilize materials that have
uniquely useful industrial applications but are potentially deleterious
to the environment
- Develop an understanding of the patterns and driving forces
of human consumption of resources
- Formulate models for possible global scenarios of future
industrial development and associated environmental implications
Source: Grand Challenges in Environmental Science, 2001, National
Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 96 pp.
Return to Top
Writing a Proposal
Cornerstones of Good Research
1. Important questions
2. The best and most appropriate methods
3. Appropriate analysis and application of results
4. Synthesis and timely dissemination of results
Proposal Structure
1. Organize: A well-organized proposal is easy to follow and comprehend
2. Highlight: Stress most important points early
3. Funnel: Start with the big picture, and end with specifics
4. Focus: On the specifics
Your proposal should present:
1. The objectives and scientific or educational significance of the
proposed work
2. The suitability of the methods to be employed
3. Effects of the activity on the infrastructure of science,
engineering, and education
Your proposal (for this class)
must include the following sections:
1. Project summary (or abstract)
2. Statement of Problem and Significance
3. Introduction and Background
a. Literature Review
b. Preliminary Data
c. Conceptual or Empirical Model
d. Justification of approach or novel methods
e. Research Plan
4. Overview of Research Design
a. Objectives, hypotheses, and
methods
b. Analysis and expected results
c. Timetable
d. References Cited
Statement of the Problem and
Significance
- Proposals always judged by their perceived significance
- Should have exciting ideas, linked to your objectives and
hypotheses
Tips:
1. Have this section at the start
of the proposal: So you can set the tone for the whole proposal
2. Keep it short: Don't dilute with details
3. Funnel: Start broad and finish specific
4. Explain the Value of your work
5. Link with Other Disciplines
The Title:
- Clear, concise, meaningful
- Avoid jargon
- Consider buzzwords
- Avoid being too informal
Exercise:
- Write down your title, and ask a friend to read it. Is it
clear? Exciting? Specific enough? Make you want to find out more?
- Write down your objective. What do you want to accomplish
with your project?
- Write down your hypothesis(es). Underline the independent
and dependent variables.
- Write down your null and alternative hypotheses. Helps you
to watch for various outcomes.
- Write down your methods. Exactly how will you test your
hypothesis?
- Write down your expected results. What do you predict will
happen?
Grading:
For the written portion, 1 mark will be rewarded for adequate coverage
of each of the four sections described above (including subsections).
Each must be clearly identified with its own header. I'm looking for
clear, concise writting, so you should not need more than one paragraph
for each individual sections (that means 10 paragraphs and the
references section). One additional mark will be rewarded for overall
neatness and style, for a total of 5 points.
For the oral portion, 1 mark will be rewarded for adequate coverage of
ssections 1 through 4. One additional grade will be rewarded for
"general considerations" (speaking, preparation, time...) for a total
of 5 points.
Resources:
Friedland, A.J. and Flot, C.L. 2000: Writing
Successful Science Proposals, Yale University Press, New Haven,
171 pp.
Return to Top
Formulating a
Hypothesis
What is an Objective?
Refers to the broad, scientifically far-reaching aspects of a study
- Sometimes verge on significance statements
e.g. The objective is to further our understanding of the implications
of global climate change in freshwater lake plankton communities
What is a Hypothesis?
A proposition(s) proposed as an explanation for the occurrence of some
specified group of phenomena
- Refers to an even more specific set of testable conjectures
than do the objective.
e.g. A decrease in the duration of ice cover results in decrease in the
plankton population.
Often based on an observation
E.g. Air pollution levels have increased significantly over the past
100 years
- The reported cases of respiratory illness such as asthma
have increased significantly over the past 100 years
My Hypothesis
- Air pollution causes asthma
- Independent variable: air pollution
- Dependent variable: asthma
- Null hypothesis: Air pollution does not cause asthma
Alternative hypotheses
- Asthma cases are better diagnosed and reported now than the
were 100 years ago
- Asthma is not caused by outdoor air pollution, but indoor
air pollution since people now spend more time indoors in
well-insulated, air-tight buildings (refined hypothesis)
Must be testable
- e.g. testable: People who live in areas with high air
pollution levels often have a higher incidence of asthma
- e.g. not testable: Asthma is caused by high pollution levels
Must be easy to evaluate
- You can collect the required data
Must be able find supporting literature
- E.g. one or two references that support (or question) your
hypothesis
- See overhead examples
Must include science and social issues
E.g. science:
- tell us what air pollution is
- how it is measured (accuracy limitations)
- any trends over time
- any geographic patterns
- what is asthma
- Who is affected and why/how
E.g social
- Why do we pollute the air (Socioeconomic issues)
- Why to patterns is space or trends in time exist
- Why are certain groups of people susceptible
- Are they socioeconomic issues that influence a potential
solution
Return to Top
Web Resources – Just a
Sample!
Be sure to reference and give acknowledgement to all of your sources!
General Seach Help:
USGS( US Only): http://www.usgs.gov
Western US Climate Data (everything including snow): http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/
US Census Data: http://www.census.gov/
Aerial Photos and Topographic Maps:
Ocean and Climate
Air Quality and Public Heath (Colorado)
http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/aphom.asp
Return to Top
Critically
Reviewing/Evaluating Articles
Introduction
Journal articles are the main and most valued forum for
the dissemination of information. The foundation of publication is
the peer-reviewed process; you can think of this as "quality control".
Once an article is prepared, it is submitted to a journal of the
author's choice. The editor then selects anonymous reviewers (usually
three) to comment on the article's quality, importance, and
originality. The article can then be accepted (usually with minor
revisions), sent back to the author for major revisions, or rejected.
The number of published articles (not to mention non-reviewed
information of the web) has increased exponentially (examples given in
class). Therefore, we all face the increased challenge of trying to
sort though all of the relevant information published in these
articles. It's impossible to keep up with everything, so our challenge
is to come up with a way of critically evaluating research articles in
a timely fashion. This exercise is designed to help with this.
Journal Article Format
The typical format or organization for journal articles is
essentially the same as a scientific write-up for a lab:
Title:
Something short but "catchy" to grab your attention (and with key words
that search engines will find). It is like a newspaper headline.
Abstract: A brief
(200-300 word) summary of the entire article. Often this is all that is
read, so it's real important
Introduction: Describes
how the specific research fits into the broader context, often like a
"significance" section. Often mentions the motivations, objectives, and
hypotheses, and funnels the reader to focus on the specific topic of
the paper.
Materials and/or Methods:
Strong science must be repeatable. Details are given her to allow
someone to repeat the experiment. Not because we don't trust them
(maybe sometimes), but usually to allow the results to be interpreted
within the context and limitations of the methods available. Technology
changes quickly, and improvements in instrumentation and shed new light
on older experiments.
Results: Describes in
detail the results of the analysis from the data the author collected.
You should be able to draw your own conclusions based on the results
the author describes.
Discussion: The results
are described in the context of the original objectives or hypotheses.
Did the results meet the objectives and support the hypothesis? Do the
results agree with the findings of others? Did the research generate
new questions? A good discussion mentions these types of things.
Summary/Conclusions:
This section summarizes the article usually in the context of the
broader subject area. It is not just another abstract, but ends the
article by highlighting key findings, ideas, or future research
questions.
References: Lists all
works cited by the authors strictly following the format described by
the journal.
Exercise
Select your favorite peer-reviewed article that you have read for this
class. In no more than one page (isn't that nice for a change!),
summarize each of the sections described above. Often, when I do this
included one or two key figures to summarize the Results section.
Ideally, you want a 1-page summary of the article that you can refer to
later instead of reading the whole thing again. Be sure to properly
reference the article you choose so you can find it later. Due TAB.
Return to Top
Reference Guide
When do you use one?
You must use a reference when you refer to the work or results of
someone other than yourself. e.g. You did not direclty find the result
that you are refering to. A "rule of thumb" to use is to ask yourself
"Is this common knowledge?". If it is, then the statement likely does
not require a reference (e.g. "The Earth is a sphere" would not require
a reference, even though you did not directly make measurements to
determine this). Another rule of thumb is "When in doubt, cite it out!"
Why do I have to reference?
To give credit to others, and to condense the text so the reader can
"refer" to the works you reference for more details (e.g. see Blanken et al., 2003 for details on the
study site).
How do you do it?
In the text: Give the
last name of the author, followed by the year of publication (e.g.
Smith, 1999). List both authors if there were two (e.g. Smith and
Brown, 2003). For more than two, list just the first followed by et al. (and others) (e.g. Smith,
Black, Jones, and Clark, 2003 would appear as Smith et al., 2003). For several
references, list them alphabetically (e.g. Albert, 2003; Jones, 2001;
Smith and Brown, 2002).
In the Reference Section at the
End: Alphabetically by first author, and use a "hanging indent"
to separate them. Journal name in italics, volume number in bold. (e.g.
Brown, J.M., 2003: The science of science. Journal Name, 34, 3321-3325.). You must list all cited references in this
section, and you must refer to all of them in the text.
Example?
Here's what you write:
The world's deserts occupy 5.85 million
hectares worldwide.
Ask this question: Did I go and
measure or calculate the area of the world's deserts? If you
did, then no need to reference this statement. If you didn't, then you
must use a reference:
The world's deserts occupy 5.85 million
hectares (West, 1983).
OR
West (1983) found that the 5.85 million
hectares are covered by deserts worldwide.
Here's how the reference should appear in the Reference Section at the
end:
West, N.E., 1983. An analysis of the world's deserts. Arid Environments, 21, 233-251.
Return to Top
Literature Review
This is not a summary of paper after paper. You must integrate (bring
together) the common findings to create a consensus of your topic. For
example, "Several studies have found a link between West Nile Virus and
air temperature (e.g. Black et al.; 2003, Jones, 1999), but other than
Smith's (1999) classic study, none made a direct link between the Virus
and other environmental factors." Again, remember to "funnel and focus".
One point will be deducted for each of the following errors in the
written portion:
- failure to use proper reference format (see Reference Guide
above)
- failure to adequately review your topic (I'm looking for
5-10 peer-reviewed references)
- failure to summarize and link papers together (i.e. you
just presented paper after paper without linking them)
- failure to relate literature to your topic (references not
relevant)
- failure to write in complete sentences (no point form)or
not typed (e.g. not presented at 4th-year University level)
For the oral portion, everyone will start
with 5 points. One point will be
deducted for each of the following:
- Time:
Takes too long or too short (aim for 4-5
minutes).
- Oral:
Speech not clear or understandable. Doesn’t face
audience.
- Visual Aids: Did not use any, or
one used were not effective (i.e. cluttered, illegible).
- Content:
A summary of the topic’s background knowledge was
not provided.
- Research:
Insufficient
research: Inappropriate or insufficient references .
Return to Top
Methodology
What should your Methods section
be?
It should describe, as specifically as possible, exactly what you will
do to collect the data you need to test your hypothesis(es). Reread
your hypothesis, then ask yourself What
data do I need to test this hypothesis? If you can't answer this
question, you need to rephrase your hypothesis. Then ask yourself How will I collect these data? See
the next section to help answer this question.
What is the point of including a
Methods Section?
Recall that one of the foundations of natural or social sciences is our
ability to describe "laws" that may govern the behavior of our natural
world. If such laws are valid, then they should apply across many
situations, and in fact be used to make predictions. If they fail, then
they need to be modified. Therefore, it is imperative that we (you)
describe precisely how you collected the data that your "laws" are
based upon. In doing so, others can interpret your findings in the
context of your data collection methods (technology changes!), and also
repeat your experiment. This is not because we don't trust you, but
rather it allows others to build on your findings by using the methods
you have already established.
Two points will be deducted for each of the following errors in
the
written portion:
- methods do not match what is described in the hypothesis
(You didn't answer the question "What data do I need to test this
hypothesis?")
- inadequate description of how the data will be collected
(not well thought out)
- methods are unrealistic and/or unattainable (indicates that
this section has not been well planned)
- failure to write in complete sentences (no point form)or
not typed (e.g. not presented at 4th-year University level)
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How Many Surveys do
I Need?
Here are a few questions you should consider while designing your
survey:
- How will you administer the survey? Mail, Web, in person,
telephone?
- How will you select who is surveyed?
- Usually a random sample within your target population
- Target population? Group of people that are "relevant" to
your study
- How many surveys?
- Return rate usually between 20-30% (or lower)
Example: How many surveys do I need to sample the City of Boulder's
commuters?
Target Population Size (N):
N =
81942 (Boulder area potential commuters)
Probability that a response to a question is chosen (p):
14-question survey, total of 66 responses, mean 4.7
responses per question
p =
1/4.7
Sampling error of +/- 5% (alpha):
alpha =
0.05 (2-tail)
Standard score (z) (transformed score which designates how many
standard deviation units the corresponding raw score is above or below
the mean)
z = 1.96
Number of surveys required (n)?
n
= _____N(1-p)p__________
(N-1)(alpha / z)2 + (1-p)p
= 256
With a response rate of 30%, this would require:
256 / 0.30 = 853!
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The Results Section
Expectations for Written Portion
Three sections and Grade Allocation for Each:
1.
Results: 4
2. Discussion: 4
3. Conclusions: 2
Results
- Describe the results of your study
- Generally not necessary to reference others - your results
only
- Use past tense to describe results
- Don't use 1st-person narrative: Use 3rd-person
- Systematically and logically describe each result
- Use figures whenever possible to describe results instead
of lengthy descriptions
For example:
Without a figure…(Don't do this)
"There was found to be a general relationship between air quality and
the occurrences of respiratory illnesses in the Denver metropolitan
area between 1990-2000. As the air quality decreases, the hospital
admissions for asthma increased. The relationship, however, was not
linear. The admission rates increased as an increasing rate as the air
quality decreased."
With a figure…(Do this)
"Figure 1 shows that as air quality decreased, the rates of hospital
admissions for asthma increased."
Or do this
" As air quality decreased, the rates of hospital admissions for asthma
increased (Figure 1)."
Don't make figures too small - use a full page. Figure caption should
be placed at the bottom.
For example (do this)
[Your figure would appear right here]
Figure 1. Rates of hospital admissions versus air quality in the Denver
metropolitan area between 1990-2000. Data from Jones et al. (2000),
Smith (2001), and Watson and Brown (1999).
Tables
Tables, although not as useful as figures, are better than lengthy
descriptions
Table caption should appear at the top of the table (tables on top).
For example…(don't do this)
"A total of 305 surveys were sent to three zip codes, 80301, 80302, and
80303. Twenty-five, 34 and 49 were returned from zip codes 80301,
80302, and 80303, respectively. This represent a return rate of 25, 40,
and 41% for zip codes 80301, 80302, and 80303, respectively."
Do this…
"A total of 305 surveys were sent to three zip codes, with a return
rate of 25% for zip code 80301, and 40 and 41% for zip codes 80302 and
80303, respectively (Table 1)."
Table 1. Number of completed surveys send and received from each zip
code.
Zip code Sent
Received % Received
80301 100
25 25
80302
85 34
40
80303 120
49 41
Discussion Section
- Here, discuss why your results are significant or important
- What are the implications of your findings?
- How do your result compare/contrast with the findings of
other relevant studies?
- Tell if how your results can be extended in time or space -
what is the predictive potential of your study?
For example…(do this)
"There appeared to be a strong relation between air quality and
respiratory health in the Denver metropolitan area. Similar results
were in Rome (Black et al., 2001) and London (Smith, 1988). Therefore,
if air quality continues to worsen, we could expect an increase in the
costs incurred due to hospital care, and work absentees. This alone is
incentive to improve air quality not only in the Denver metropolitan
area, but in other large urban centers as well."
Conclusions
- What can you conclude from your study?
- Don’t just summarize what you already mentioned in the
Results or Discussion sections
- Not the place to mention any new results
For example…(do this)
"This study has shown that there are social, economic, and
environmental costs associated with a degradation of air quality.
Relatively easy and simple solutions for air pollution abatement, if
implemented now, could significantly decrease these cost. In addition,
air pollution abatement programs would likely result in other benefits
including tourism and recreation."
Expectations for Oral Portion
- Practice to keep at your allotted time: 4 min per person
- Be as visual as possible, use colors if possible
- Balance "text" with "visuals" (figures, photos, maps)
- Keep text large (26 point font minimum)
- Great opportunity to demonstrate use of technology, for
example, showing us a web site you created for your results
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Formulating a
Policy Statement
Four broad strategies by which public policy attempts to produce change.
In your policy statement, I want you to comment on each of these
sections.
Most effective strategy for change produced by public policy is a
combination of all four.
1. Technological Fixes
Examples:
- more efficient car engines
- synchronized traffic lights
- better insulation
Public policy can stimulate the adoption of new technology in a variety
of ways:
- public investment
- subsidies
- tax policies
- regulatory mandates
Requires investment ($)
2. Behavioral Fixes
Ways by which public policy provides incentives to get us to behave
differently
Examples:
- Getting people to eat lower on the food chain
- Stop smoking
- Turn down thermostats
- Use public transportation
Typically requires incentives (or penalties)
3. Cognitive Fixes
Create awareness of problems in people's minds
Assume if you change people's minds, you will change their behavior
Often rely on public education and media campaigns
Appeal is that they rely on voluntary change (compatible with norms of
personal freedom)
Requires no regulation and little public investment
Little evidence that this strategy works in isolation (need to be part
of a comprehensive program)
Examples:
- Recycling adds
- Red/Blue are advisory
- Carpool adds
4. Legal Fixes
Mandate change through laws and regulation rather than incentives,
subsidies or persuasion
Examples:
- Speed limits
- Removal of lead from gas
- Anti-pollution devices
Grades: 2 for each of the
"fixes", 1 each for Introduction/Conclusion.
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