The Bering Straight Land Bridge

Ancient Siberians lived on a massive area of grasslands inhabited by mega fauna.  These animals included species such as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk ox, bison, reindeer, and wild horses.  They hunted over large areas, where they lived in seasonal camps following the movements of the animals that supported their lives.  One of the earliest Siberian sites, inhabited sometime between 19,000 and 18,000 B.C., was the camp of Mal'ta, near Lake Balkal in western Siberia. 

East in the Aden Valley, at a site called D'uktai, many forms of artifacts have been found that are similar to those used in the paleo cultures of the North American Arctic.  Some of these artifacts include bifacial knives (stone knives with chipped edges on both sides of the blade), stone spearheads, large stone axes, and tiny stone blades (microblades used as spear tips).  Archeological evidence suggests that this culture subsisted on large game, some small game and fish, an a few wild vegetables.  This lifestyle bears a strong resemblance to those suggested by archeological findings in the North American arctic.

The Bering Straight migration theory suggests that humans began crossing the Bering Straight as early as 15,000 B.C.  The area of the Bering Land Bridge, called by some scholars “Beringia” is thought to have been a 500-mile wide swath of land covered with tundra-like vegetation used by both humans and animals to cross into the North American arctic regions and beyond.  This swath of land is thought to have been created 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, near the end of the Pleistocene (Ice Ages).  Continental glaciers forming in the northern hemisphere locked up so much water that the level of the oceans are thought to have dropped more than 300 feet lower than present levels.

Some of the evidence supporting the Bering migration includes dental comparisons, DNA comparisons, linguistic comparisons, and archeological evidence like those sited above.

In dental studies by Christy Turner, he states that the tooth structure of North Americans has almost exactly the same characteristics of that of the people of northern Siberia and China, and that this structure evolved from the tooth structure from that of people from southeastern Asia and southern China. Turner proposed that to account for the current differences in dental structure, the American population would have had to split from the Siberian population around 12,000 B.C.

In the 1950’s, a Stanford University linguist Joseph Greenberg proposed that the majority of American languages appeared to have a common ancestor.  He created database of words from over 140 pre-European American languages. Through this database, he concluded that there were three migrations of languages into North America. These were the "Amerind" family (Algonkin, Hokan, Musan, Penutian, Siouan, and Uto-Aztecan) dated to be at least 11,000 years old, the "NaDene" family (Athabascan, Haida, and Tlingit) dated around 7,000 B.C., and the "Eskaleut" family (Aleut and Eskimo) dating to around 2000 B.C.  These dates hint at a mass migration from northern Asia at the end of the last ice age.

The work of Stephen Zegura and other scientists agree with this time frame.  A proven test for human genetic mutation uses Mitochondrian DNA.  Mitochondrian DNA is passed through generation in the female line.  Numerous mitochondrian DNA experts believe that data implies that all paleo-Americans descended from a fairly small set of people living around Siberia.  The genetically nearest modern group is the Mongolians.  Estimates for the division of the two populations fall between 30,000 B.C. to 9,000 B.C., dates which correlates with Turner's dental research and the Bering Strait hypothesis.

Although other theories of migration have been proposed, the Bering Strait theory is the most prevalent and seems to be backed by the most evidence.

Some of the other theories are:

A European migration: Dennis Stanford, chairman of the Anthropology Department at the Smithsonian institution. 

The initial migration was made to South America:  Ruth Gruhn, professor emeritus of the University of Alberta.

Naval migrations from the west: Pacific Rim residents were the first Americans and they floated to the New World by boat down the West Coast.

Earlier migrations from Siberia: early Europeans migrated to the Topper site previous to the Bering time frame.

References:

Greenberg, Joseph H and Christy Turner II, and Stephen Zegura. 1986. Settlement of the Americas. Current Anthropology 27:477-497.

Plants of the Arctic Region:

Plant species of the arctic region are thought to have remained generally the same over time.  Not until recent times has the species composition of species changed.  This change has been dramatic, especially in spruce stands.  Many virgin spruce stands have been lost through construction use during the mineral extraction booms of the region and through fires caused by the non-native people who populated the region during the mineral extraction boom periods.  (for more information on plant species of the Mackenzie region, see PLANTS on the main page of this site)

Plant foods are collected from a wide range of plants, as long as the plants have sufficient carbohydrates and oils to warrant the effort of collection of greens, nuts/seeds, roots, corms, bulbs, etc. Food flavorings were used. There are strong relations between food and taxa; for example, grasses are particularly important for cereals and Rubus genus is important for berries. Fodder is important for cultures with domestic animals.

Dramatic Decline in Species

Caribou

Similar in size to elk, caribou are large grazing ungulates of North America and Greenland.  They live above tree line in the arctic regions and are known to migrate great distances.  They eat lichen and moss in the winter, an adaptation that has allowed them to exist in the harsh climate of the arctic.  Both males and females grow large antlers.  Male’s antlers can reach over 4 feet in width.  Caribou are an important resource for the people of the north.  They are eaten for food and their hides are used for clothing, shelter, and other purposes.

Reindeer are smaller animals that were domesticated in Eurasia 2000 to 5000 years ago.  They are still herded today by many northern people of Eurasia, like the Sami in Scandinavia and the Nenets, Chukchi and others in Russia.  These people depend on the reindeer for the same resources that the caribou provide in North America, food, clothing, and shelter. 

When reindeer were introduced as an agricultural animal in the early 1900’s, a decline in the caribou population occurred.  This was due, in part, because of the competition for forage between the two species.  The main reason for the decline, however, was that the caribou was considered a nuisance species by reindeer herders.  Reindeer were often attracted to caribou grazing sites.  This was because of similarities in forage used by the two species.  Caribou were often killed because of the competition for forage.  The herders of reindeer did not want their herds to suffer from the competition for forage.  By the 1950’s, caribou were scarce.  A resurgence is now occurring in caribou numbers, mostly because of the decline in reindeer herding.  The latest threat to caribou numbers is the development of the remaining caribou habitat by oil and gas extraction industry.

Here is a great site with many Caribou links:

Traditional Village Living

The Village

Villages consisted of small family groups and consisted of around 120 people.  Villages had strong kinship ties and usually involving people of similar family lineage.  There was a strong individual attachment to the village.  To move away or die elsewhere was considered unfortunate.  The village was a setting of great importance to the arctic people, as it was the only place where people were together for extended periods of time.  At other times, families lived in fishing camps or tundra camps to hunt and fish for food.

Villages were usually built on well-drained high ground near productive salmon fishing sites.  Nearby would be a stream for drinking water.  A village usually consisted of 5 or 6 sod-covered houses and one larger structure, a “qasgiq” or men’s house, at the center of the village.

The Family House

The 5 or 6 sod covered housed of the village were the family houses.  These dwellings made up the principle part of the village.  Family houses were built with spruce logs set into the ground in a square or rectangular shape.  The logs were then covered with bark and driftwood and topped with sod.  The entrances to these structures were narrow tunnels dug into the ground to insulate the house from the cold arctic weather.  These narrow entrances were often the living space for the family dogs, who stayed here to escape mosquitoes in the summer and the cold in the winter.  Sometimes ground level entrances were built into the houses for summer use and when these were permanent an anteroom for storage was attached here.

The interior of the family house was centered on a stone lined fireplace with a skylight above.  This fireplace was used as heat for the house and for cooking.  A lamp that burned seal or whale oil was used for light.  This lamp was a shallow bowl with a moss wick.  Logs separated the fireplace from a grass-carpeted walking area.  Around the outside of the house were low earthen platforms covered with woven grass mats that were used for sleeping.

The Typical Household

The typical household of a family house included an elderly woman, her daughter or daughters, her granddaughters, and her grandsons under the age of about 9 years old.  The household was a cooperative family unit, and each member of the household had specific duties and chores that they carried out.

The elder woman supervised the work of the family house.  It has been said that she was generally critical of other villagers and a loving and faithful ally of her daughters.  The young boys of the household showed respect towards their grandmothers, but their loyalties were reserved for the male relatives of the family.  This living arrangement did not foster close marital bonds and the men of the house were generally outsiders.  They seldom stayed in the family house unless they were ill.

Daily Household Routines

Lighting the Lamp

The lighting of the lamp began when a child of the household, usually a boy, lit the oil soaked moss wick of the lamp.  This individual searched the fireplace for remnant coals with which to light the lamp.  If the coals had gone out, the child obtained one from neighbors.  The household chores began when the lamp was lit.

Typical Morning Routine

After the oil lamp was lit, the morning meal was prepared.  Conscientious wives would watch for the shaman returning from the Qasgiq (men’s house), which indicated that the men of the village were awaiting their morning meal.  The woman who arrived first gained the reputation of being a good provider.

Breakfast in the Qasgiq

Women distributed food to their family members in the men’s house.  They then waited for the men to eat their meal.  They often sat quietly with their heads bowed.  Wives, sisters, or daughters then left with the empty bowls after the meal was completed.

The Cache

Near each house was a cache, which is a storage structure used like a cellar and a storage shed.  This sat on 4 posts hewn usually from spruce logs with bark roof.  A notched log served as a ladder and it had long shelves extended from the cache to store sleds and other large items.  The cache was enclosed for storage of winter supplies.  Cached winter supplies included salmon that had been dried or smoked and stored in bags of woven grass, fish skin or sealskin; beluga stomachs used to store whale blubber, whale oil, and seal oil; and wooden or birch bark vessels used to store berries and bundles of dried grass (a construction material).

Near the family house was often a pit lined with bark and grass used to store fish caught late in the season that had not been dried.  Houses near the riverbank had trash piles that would be washed away by spring floods and houses away from the river had kitchen midden piles where household debris would be disposed.  Elsewhere in the village fish drying racks where made from spruce poles and other racks were erected for the storage of boats in the winter.

The Qasgiq (Men’s House)

Spelled in many ways, the Qasgiq translates into the men’s house.  The men of the village often lived here, while the women of the village lived in the family house.  The Qasgiq served as a living space and a gathering place for ceremonies and rituals. 

The Qasgiq Structure

The Qasgiq was framed with spruce lags often recovered as driftwood.  The walls of the structure were up to 30 feet in length and set in an excavated foundation.  This structure was covered with grass and slabs of bark, and then sodded.  The semi-subterranean structure was designed to keep out the cold.  Like the family house, it also had a tunnel entrance.

The Qasgiq Interior

Like the family house, the Qasgiq had one main room, dominated by a large central fire pit.  There was a spruce plank floor, with false floor that covered the fire pit when not in use.  There was a skylight in the ceiling over fire pit with removable cover made from stretched animal skin on a wooden frame.  The walls of the structure were lined with wooden benches.

Interior Furnishings of the Qasgiq

Benches lined the walls for sleeping.  There were one or two tubs for storing urine and one large tub for holding drinking water.  Two bowl shaped clay lamps like the ones used in the family house were usually mounted on wooden holders on the back wall of the structure.  These lamps were filled with seal or whale oil and used for light at night.  In prosperous communities these lamps were always full. 

Life Stages in the Men’s House

Rank within the community was symbolized by where one slept in the Qasgiq.  Young boys had spaces beneath the benches.  When old enough, young men occupied the benches on the wall opposite the entrance.  Middle-aged men had benches on the side walls.  Old men had benches adjoining the entryway.  The oldest of the men occupied the bench nearest the door.

The Interior Atmosphere of the Qasgiq

A Qasgiq in use was very hot and crowded.  When the skylight was covered there could be so little oxygen in the room that an ember could only burn near the floor.  Those unaccustomed to this atmosphere would soon find there eyes watering from ammonia fumes.  Urine was used for bathing in the winters and for treating animal skins.

Behavior in the Qasgiq

Conversations were to be subdued, horseplay was prohibited, and quarreling was forbidden.  Young boys were to ask for permission from an elder to drink from the water tub and boys were expected to consume little water.  This was thought to increase their endurance.  The effect of the Qasgiq lifestyle was that the men of the qasgiq collectively raised the boys.  This lifestyle created strong bonds between the men and respect for the male elders of the village.  The only time that the men of the Qasgiq worked together was during yearly drives of caribou and waterfowl and during work on the Qasgiq.  During this work the men, being adults, worked as equals regardless of age.  At other times the men generally worked alone or with a brother or close friend.  Since there was no formal education, the boys of the village learned skills by observing the men during times of labor.

Morning Ritual of the Qasgiq

The men remained in their sleeping places while an elder delivered a monologue.  An alternative to this was a dialog between two of the elder men.  The ritual of this morning discourse was used to pass knowledge on to the men of the Qasgiq.  Themes of the morning discourse included:

–   The behavior of youths and adults while at home or away

–   How to act in emergencies

–   What to do differently as times changed

–   How to behave in the men’s house

At the end of the morning ritual, the village shaman arrived to perform a daily ritual.  Shaman lived in a house outside the qasgiq with their family.  They were usually male, but could be female.  The nature of the morning shaman ritual is not known.  After the shaman’s daily ritual daily activities began.  Some of these daily activities included:

–    departing on hunting or fishing trips

–    making or repairing equipment

–    eating meals at customary times

–    bathing

Qasgiq Bathing Ritual

The traditional Arctic people were not known for their bathing.  Some, however, performed a bathing ritual within the Qasgiq.  Many of the cultures that used the qasgiq had a sweat lodge type of bathing ritual.  This ritual bathing was sometimes performed many times per day. 

Planks were removed from fire pit and lengths of dry spruce were stacked in the hole.  The sky light cover was set aside and the fire was lit, this signaled the bathers to get undressed.  When the smoke from the fire cleared the skylight was replaced, causing the heat to intensify. 

This ritual was restricted to men.  The bathers would take their accustomed places on their benches.  The fire would fill the room with smoke and heat.  Sometimes the men would bite on a bundle of wood shavings to filter the hot smoky air.  The room got so hot that headbands were often worn to protect the ears from burning.  The heat sometimes burned the skin and urine was daubed on the skin to relieve the burning.  When the heat was unbearable, the bathers would sometimes lie on the floor. 

During the bath, bathers became light-headed and exhilarated from the heat.  In the winter, pulling river water through a hole in the ice and pouring it over the body might end a bath, but most bathers stayed in the Qasgiq.  Urine was poured onto the embers at the end of the bath.  Bathing and sitting around the warm Qasgiq talking afterwards were considered by men as some of the most pleasurable experiences of daily life.

This site has fantastic of arctic cultural photographs from the early 1900’s – villages, fish racks, caches, boats, people, etc… (pics V20-1 thru V20-78):

Salmon – Economic Staple

From pre-European contact to modern times, salmon has been a staple of the riverine people of the arctic north.  Some of the many types of salmon fished by the people of the arctic north include:

–Chinook (King)

–Chum (Dog)

–Coho (Silver)

–Sockeye (Red)

–Pink (Humpback) Chinook (King)

–Chum (Dog)

–Coho (Silver)

–Sockeye (Red)

–Pink (Humpback)

Fishing for salmon occurred at seasonal fishing camps.  Each family unit usually had their own camp, which they traveled to on sleds in the spring before the ice thawed.  Dog sleds were laden with boats, tents, and supplies used to get to camp. 

The family then traveled back to the village in boats after the ice break-up. 

Both men and women of the family fished.  The men preferred using fishing weirs, traps, and nets to catch fish.  These methods resulted in high catch yields and did not always need to be attended, so other activities could be pursued.  Other activities included hunting small waterfowl and trapping small mammals. 

Women of the fishing camp used traditional hook and line fishing that many associate with the act of fishing.  Other activities the women of fishing camps pursued were collecting berries and fish catch preparation.

The men would unload the catch into a wooden box that was covered with grasses to keep insects off the fish.  The women would then partially filleted the fish and hang them on spruce pole racks for drying.  Smudges, small smoldering piles of woody debris, were placed beneath racks to ward off flies.  When dried, the fish were bundled with cordage for transport to the village.

Salmon was caught and stored in caches for food in the harsh winter months.  The female kin of the fisherman prepared the catch.  Salmon that had been dried or smoked were stored in bags of woven grass, fish skin or sealskin.  These stores were then put in a cache near the family house for later use. 

Fish skin was used as a material for clothing.  The sewing of fish skin was considered an art, as fish skin is a delicate material with which it is difficult to work.  The women of the village carried out construction of these artifacts.  A woman who had great skill in sewing fish skin was given a higher status within the village. 

A small family required about 500 salmon to live through a year.  This number included having extra food to serve outside family and guests.  This extra food was important for ceremonial events.  Good providers that had extra food were highly regarded within the village. 

Here is a link to an article on fishing weirs and traps:

Material Culture

Trade

The people of the north traded with neighboring villages for goods and materials, with the people of modern Siberia for iron products, and held yearly markets as large gatherings for trade.

Clothing

With fish being such an abundant resource, the skin of fish evolved as a locally abundant material for the fabrication of clothing.  Manufacturing articles from this material was delicate work, and reverence was given to those that could do it well.  Caribou hide, moose hide, whale skin, and walrus skin were all used prevalently.  Bird skin and feathers also used.  It becomes noticeable that the people of the arctic north used many of the skins from their food sources as material to construct artifacts for day-to-day use.

Women’s Skills

Women and men were often segregated in this culture, as are the skills that each sex brought to the family group and the village.  Women’s skills in stitching and clothing making were very highly valued.  Women also made such artifacts as woven grass and birchbark baskets; canoe and kayak coverings of skins sewn together; and lamps and cooking vessels made from clay.

Male Skills

Men of the arctic also contributed many valuable artifacts to daily life.  Wood was the preferred and abundant material.  The artifacts made by men were usually functional and ranged in a variety of sizes to suit different needs.  Structures, sleds, canoe frames, fish traps, net floats, cups and bowls were all made by the men out of wood.  The men also made scrapers, arrowheads, and net sinkers out of flaked chert.  Stone adz blades and knives were also fashioned. 

Adornments

Since clothing covered the body, adornments were focused on the head.  Women and men often adorned with piercings on their cheeks, ears, and the septum of their nose.  Women wore their hair long and braided and sewed their hoods sewn to accommodate their hairstyles.  Faces of women were often tattooed with blue lines, dots, and stars.  The men did not wear tattoos.  Clothing was sometimes decorated with feathers, fur, or stitching.

Here is a link to a site with pictures depicting people performing skills and wearing traditional arctic clothing:

Social Life

The culture and lifestyles of the arctic people evolved because it was very difficult for an individual to survive.  This may be said about the marriages in this culture as well.  Loose nuclear families evolved in marriages based very much on economics.  The man depended upon his wife for the making of garments, cooking of food, and to process and preserve all the food he caught.  The woman depended on her husband to provide food, skins, and artifacts for daily life.

Marriage Rituals and Traditions

There was a lack of a formal marriage ceremony.  However, a special feast was often held where new garments were presented to the couple.  After a marriage, the bride would continue to stay in her mother’s house.  The son-in-law was not directly asked to do anything different to his normal lifestyle.  But, all the fish and fur caught by the son-in-law went to the in-law’s family.  This was a way to prove that he could adequately provide for his wife.

Men occasionally exchanged wives.  This was usually a gesture of friendship and social or economic ties.  This proved that one could provide for the others wife and that each man had a stake in the others family.  Exceptional providers sometimes had multiple wives.  The fact that he could provide for two or more families showed great status within the village.  A man could also wrestle another for ones wife.  It was an acceptable and sometimes frequent occurrence that a man could take the wife of another by defeating him in a wrestling match. 

Divorce

Divorce was dealt with in indirect, but often less than subtle ways.  A divorce could be initiated because the husband was lazy and did not provide well for the family or if the wife ate too much or if she did not conceive.  Boys were especially important, as they support their parents in their old age.  If the wife initiated the divorce, she could stop preparing his meals.  If the husband initiated the divorce, he could leave the village without providing for his wife’s welfare.

Pregnancy

Next to marriage and divorce, pregnancy was the # 1 occurrence in an arctic adult’s life.  No preparations were made for the oncoming of the child, as it was considered to be a bad omen.  Once the birth of the child had occurred, the parents received a higher status within their village – especially if the child was a male.  When a child was born, the parents ceased to be referred to by their personal names.  Instead, they became known as the parents of “name” the first-born.  This practice is called teknonymy. When parents were especially successful at raising children, more status was conferred to them within the village.

Rituals of Boyhood

When a boy killed his first living thing, his parents held a special meal to mark the event.  The celebration was held in proportion to the status of the animal killed.  The greatest feasts were held for the kill of a seal or a caribou.  When the boy killed an animal the mother would stuff the skins of the birds, mice, etc…that her young son killed.  These effigies were used in ceremonies denoting the boy’s achievements.  The effigies were created to honor the spirits of the animals killed.  This enabled the spirit to continue on into the next life.  Around the age of 9 the boy was admitted into the ceremonies of the Qasgiq and treated as a young man.

Rituals of Girlhood

When a girl picked her first berry, the girl’s family held a ceremony acknowledging her contribution to the family’s welfare.  At age 9, the girl was fully integrated into the household routine.  Near this time, a ceremony was held to acknowledge her adult status.  This ceremony was sometimes called the “Putting away the doll” ceremony.  This ceremony was held at puberty to acknowledge her move into womanhood.  Soon after this ceremony a marriage was often arranged.  These arranged marriages served as an early trial marriage.  Through this arrangement each ‘partner’ sought compatible mates.

Providers - “A Man Indeed”

Great honor was bestowed upon men that were exceptional at hunting and fishing.  Successful providers that did not require all their food gained honor through hosting social and religious feasts.  The ability to share food and other items was an essential part of the northern peoples lifestyles.  It was through this type of cooperation that these people were able to survive in the harsh conditions of the north.  Sharing was a dominant quality of the arctic people. 

The #1 provider in a village was called “a man indeed”.  This title endowed great authority on him in matters of community.  The “man indeed” decided the timing of major village events, especially feasts and festivals.  This was often because he would be providing the majority of extra food for the event.  The title of “man indeed” gave the individual informal, consensus leadership within the village.  This status was maintained until the individual’s abilities failed due to bad luck, an accident, or old age.

Village Politics

There was no formal political body in the arctic villages.  Political action within a village was limited to extended families acting independently.  An extended family included and elderly couple, their sons and daughters, and grandchildren.  Two or three large extended families usually existed in each village.  Within these groups, families buffered relatives in times of crisis and provided aid in times of need.  Economically successful elders functioned as the leaders within the family unit.  There was no forceful authority in the arctic village, instead persuasion and reason were used.

Serious Village Problems

Villages responded in unison only when numerous families were affected by an occurrence.  A drastic disruption like a murder within a kin group was not considered a community wide concern. 

A murder of a non-relative, however, seriously disrupted village life.  This may involve nearby settlements.  Family members of the victim usually reacted through revenge.  Attempts would be made to kill the murderer or a close relative of the murderer.  The victim’s kin may attempt to recruit outsiders to their cause.  Blood feuds sometimes emerged when these activities escalated, but neutral parties would usually intervene before blood feuds occurred for the good of the community.

Here is a link for arctic and sub arctic marriages:

Religion, Shamans & Ceremonies

Religion

The people of the arctic north believed that the natural and supernatural worlds are closely related and that spirit beings and forces of the supernatural world exist in the natural world.  They also believe that each person has a spirit from the supernatural world they can call on in times of need.

The naming practices of the arctic people made individuals aware of their lineage through their name.  When a person died their name was bestowed upon a newborn or many newborns if the dead person was of high status.  This naming pattern represented continuity between the souls of the dead and the souls of the living.

Rituals were performed to achieve continuity of an animal species and to perpetuate the individual animal’s spirit.  This was thought to keep the good will of the spirit of the animal.  The arctic people believed that hunting destroyed the body, not the soul and that death and rebirth are integrated.

Shamans

The village shaman was an interpreter of spirit beings and forces.  They could be male or female, although little is known of female shaman.  The village shaman did not live in the Qasgiq with the men, but lived in the family house of their family.  Becoming a shaman in the arctic was a personal endeavor and was not a title that was bestowed upon them. 

If a person wanted to become a shaman, they would become an apprentice with the village shaman and attempt to learn the power over spirits.  Achieving this power led to the individual seeking the advice of the spirits in the natural world through dreams.  When the apprentice was able to achieve this communication with the spirits they could purportedly change the weather, cure some diseases, attract food species to their people, and prevent natural disasters.

Ceremonial Life

Ceremonies of the arctic people were often held in the Qasgiq.  During the ceremonies great effort was put into the staging of effects, drama, humor, and elaborate symbolism.  Ceremonies often involved smoke effects, with sounds depicting various sounds in nature, and dancers with wooden masks that often depicted the spirit aids of the shaman.  The season for ceremonies went from the late fall through the early winter, after the villagers had settled in for the winter and the food gathering process had been completed.  Some examples of traditional arctic festivals are:

-         The Berry Festival – this was the first festival of the season marking the end of summer

-         The Bladder Festival – this festival honored the species harvested for food to continue food sources into the coming years

-         The Great Feast of the Dead

Feast of the Dead

The Great Feast of the Dead was a kind of combination of a family reunion and the Day of the Dead celebrations of Latin America.  This festival honored those who had died since the last Feast of the Dead.  Hundreds of gifts prepared for the multitude of visitors that would attend from surrounding areas.  The kin of the recently dead worked extra hard the season before to provide food for ceremony.  Hundreds of visitors from surrounding villages would attend.  The hosts fed visitors and their dogs during their stay and those in attendance would receive gifts of food and articles honoring the dead.  The namesakes of the honored dead would receive fine clothing honoring the belief that the spirit of the dead lived on in their living namesakes.

Here is link to a site with many other links for arctic culture and religion:

Folk Tales

“The girl who married a dog”

This is one of the oldest tales of the north.  It is a tale that the Dogrib people claim as a story of the origin of their people.  This tale is found across the arctic of North America and Asia.

Here is a link to an abstract describing this story and some of its origins:

Health and Medicine

Before the influx of hunters, trappers, and explorers into the Arctic, arthritis and rheumatism were the prevailing health problems.  There was no measles or influenza at this time, which later came to annihilate much of the population of the northern people.  The daily life of the northern people involved a great deal of exercise, so the people were in good shape with very few overweight individuals.  Dene and Mackenzie Inuit women have been documented as carrying up to 100 pounds of weight on their backs while traveling between camps.  These same tribes used sweat baths in their daily routines, which may have also contributed to the strength of their health, and boys often jumped into holes in the ice to make them stronger.

There were two divisions of medical knowledge in the traditional cultures of the north. 

1. Cuts, broken bones, and digestive pains – treated by healers with traditional and herbal remedies
2. Difficult sicknesses of the mind or body – treated by shaman and blamed on black magic

Illnesses and Treatments

Fits of Hysteria  - common among all northern people, especially during the long winter

    months

 - Person was tied up until fit passed

Headaches   -   Inuit would bleed forehead to relieve pain

Stomach Troubles   -  Medicines made from leaves, bark, roots, berries, & dirt

Bleeding wounds  -  Spider webs, poplar bark, puff balls used to stop bleeding

Starvation  -  Pangs treated with eider-duck down mixed with blood and blubber into a

         chewing gum

Antiseptics  -  Seal blubber, spruce gum, lemming skins

A Case Study: Knee Cap Surgery

A report describes two Kutchin women who performed surgery on a man who had fractured his kneecap.  They used flint knives to cut skin on knee.  They then drilled holes into the bone on either side of the fracture of the kneecap.  Pegs made of caribou bone were inserted into the holes.  These pegs were laced together with sinew and the skin was folded back over the knee when completed.  The man fainted many times from the pain during the surgery, but he recovered and the knee mended perfectly.

Here is a link to a site with tons of links to sites on traditional arctic medicine:

Part II: Modernization of the North

Modern Interests in the North

Many countries and governments laid claim to the lands around the arctic.  This led to the Canadian and American governments establishing themselves in this region.  The main way this occurred was through military, police, religious, and industrial presence in the region.  One main way the governments of North America established themselves in the arctic region was through the exploration of mineral wealth in the area.  This settlement occurred during the Yukon gold rush, the discovery of oil at Norman Wells, and the discovery of radium east of Great Bear Lake.

Treaty No. 11

Treaties were drawn in the north to give the Canadian government legal claim to the land of the northern people.  The term “Indian” is used in this treaty, so it will sometimes be used in this section to refer to the original people of northern Canada. 

These treaties gave Indian rights to the land to the government of Canada (the crown).  Most of the treaties drawn by the Canadian government with the original people of Canada were given a number, although a few were named after the drafters of the treaties.  Treaty No. 11 was the treaty drafted by the Canadian government for the region of the Mackenzie River, and covers the land through which the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline will travel. 

Obligations of the Canadian Government Under Treaty No. 11

This treaty reserved 1 square mile for each Indian family of 5 within the treaty.  It gave the Canadian government the right to sell reserved lands with Indian consent as well as giving the government the right to appropriate reserve land for Federal public purposes.  Hunting and trapping in ceded area were subject to government regulations.  Money for teacher salaries in the nations new lands was mentioned, but no amounts or guarantees for education were stipulated.

Treaty Gifts Exchanged with the Indians

In exchange for the rights to the land, the Canadian government gave medals, flags, and a copy of the treaty to each chief who participated in the treaty.  Fishing, hunting, and trapping equipment were given to each family within the treaty signing Indian bands.  Other miscellaneous equipment was also given to the Indians, including rope, canvas, and other goods.

Treaty Payments to the Indians

In addition to the gifts that the Indians received from the government, annual payments were written into the treaties.  For each band signing the treaty, each individual received $5 per year, each headman (family representative) received $15 per year, and each band chief received $25 per year.  A suit of clothes was also given to each chief and headman every three years.  For many years those who received the suits, as they were representative of their status within their bands, wore these them with some pride.  There were also annual distributions of supplies, like those gifts already mentioned.  These supplies included twine, ammunition, food, and other goods.

The Reality of the Treaty

 Treaty No. 11 and others were a good bargain for Canadian government.  Through all treaties combined, the government received half the land of Canada.  The yearly payments amount to almost nothing in modern times, although they guaranteed the right to hunt, fish, and trap to the Indians.  Gradually, opportunities to hunt, fish, and trap were reduced in the north, as people, buildings, machines, roads, railways, airports, pollution, and game laws have led to changes in hunting and fishing practices in the region.  The treaty did not mention police or medical help in the text of the treaty.  The Indians took spoken words as promises during the treaty negotiations.  This quote by Chief Pierre Squirrel, a signer of Treaty No. 8 in 1899 sums up this sentiment:

“When I made this treaty with your government, I stipulated that we should have a policeman and a doctor; instead of that you have sent nothing but missionaries.” 1903

Indian Act of 1876 (revised in 1951)

Under this act most of the Canadian Indians were registered to a specific band, gaining them the label “treaty Indian”.  During the treaty process, some bands received reserves (reservations), but there were no reserves created in the pipeline area of the Northwest Territory.  This later comes into play, as the people of the pipeline region used the pipeline as an avenue to gain ownership rights to their native lands. 

The treaty Indians who belong to bands who have signed treaties were able to receive government compensation for the signing of the treaties.  Some Indians did not receive compensation for the treaty signings.  Non-status Indians were Indians that were not associated with a particular treatied band, and therefore did not receive compensations.  The Metis people were also not included. 

The Metis are a band of people evolved in the 18th and 19th centuries as a mixture of French and Scottish ancestry from fur traders who procreated with Cree, Ojibwa, Saulteaux, and Assiniboine women.  These people have developed as a people distinct from either Indian or European ancestry. 

Metis Population Betterment Act 1938

The Metis were given the option by the Canadian government to sign treaties and become “official Indians”, or they could take payment for their lands and become European Canadians.  This act set up 8 reserves called “colonies” for the Northern Metis, giving them governance over their own lands.

Here is a link to a full text version of Treaty No. 11:

Royal Canadian Mounted Police

In 1900, the Canadian government formed the Royal North West Mounted Police and in 1903 police posts were built on the Arctic Ocean.  This was a move by the government to show Canadian ownership of region.  The posts built at this time were Fort Mc Pherson, Fort Fullerton, and Fort Hershel Island. 

In 1920, this group was renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as they are known to this day.  The functions they performed were varied.  They performed mostly as explorers, game officers, nurses, census takers, & tax collectors. 

In 1939, the Canadian government spent $17 on police presence in the north for every 1 Inuit.  At the same time, the American government was spending 41 cents for every 1 Inuit in Alaska.  This disparity may be the result of the feeling by the government of how much police presence was needed to claim rights to the land.  During this time, Canada was spending $12 per Inuit on education, health, and welfare, $5 of this came directly from fur taxes paid by the Inuit.  The disparity between the spending on police and the spending on welfare services may show the priority on governmental presence in the region versus the needs of the original people.

Here is a link to a history of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police:

Knowledge & Learning

The influx of the new western culture to the northern people changed educational processes in the region.  Traditionally, children learned everything from parents and adults of their village.  The influx of missions into the region changed this by building schools.  In 1894, the first government grant was issued to a school in the Northwest Territory.  This grant gave $200 for a school of 31 northern students at the mission school in Ft. Resolution.  

Western Style Education in the North

The European style of education progressed slowly in the north.  This was due to the size and geography of the region, the seasonal movements of the people, and an un-even distribution of schools across the north.  In 1944, 80% of Inuit children were not being schooled in the new educational system.  Teachers were often poorly trained and northern children were often taught in English, and not their native tongue. 

Mission style schools were often boarding schools.  These schools taught religious studies as much as practical knowledge.  In 1947 & 1948 schools were built in the Northwest Territory in Tuktoyaktuk and Inukjuak.  Like these locations, schools were mostly built near trading posts and missions. 

With people living away in fishing and hunting camps for much of the year, children had to stay with relatives in town to attend schools.  In the summers teachers sometimes lived in the camps and taught from tents, but this was not the norm.  As the assimilation into the new Canadian culture commenced, families moved to be near schools, nurses, stores, and churches. 

Boarding Schools

To continue into upper level education, children had to move to boarding schools.  In the Mackenzie region, these schools were in Inuvik, Yellowknife, Frobisher Bay, and Great Whale River.  In a region as large as the Mackenzie Valley, children would often have to travel great distances to attend school, becoming separated from their families and the traditional education style that was connected to village life.

The boarding school lifestyle changed the nature of the younger generation of northern people.  Normally, northern children were quiet and reserved.  These children were encouraged to speak up in the new school system.  Native habits like silent facial yes/no expressions were discouraged and not readily understood by the teachers in the western schools.  Boarding school life acclimated students to comings and goings of strangers, as teachers and administrators frequently changed. 

Life in the residential schools offered no chores or influence of elders.  Instead, a foreign ‘teen-age’ culture developed.  Through this development, the new school system developed a ‘generation gap’ between the younger and older generations of northerners.  The youth had new language and culture and elders no longer taught children customs or the traditional subsistence lifestyle.

Adult Education

The new western education system was not aimed at adults.  Adults were never explained workings of fur trade system, Indian Act, or the Canadian system of government.  In response to this the Hudson Bay Co., a very large fur trading corporation, printed the “Eskimo Book of Knowledge” in an attempt to educate northern adults on health, saving money, game preservation, laws, and changes coming to the north due to western modernization. 

While this was a worthwhile effort by the Hudson Bay Co., it was probably done in part to secure some longevity for the trapping industry on which the company depended.  It should also be noted that the Eskimo Book of Knowledge was printed in only two languages, English and Inuktitut (the language of the Inuit).  This excluded most of the adult northerners from even this biased form of education.

The North Teaching the North

Native languages are now being taught in schools and books are being written by northern people for northern people.  The first book to be written by a Canadian Inuit and published in Inuktitut was The Autobiography of John Ayaruaq, published by the Canadian government in 1968.  The first university available to northerners was Eskimo University at Frobisher Bay.  Planning for this institution began in the early 1970’s.  Here northern people could study northern culture and tradition for the first time at the university level. 

Here is a website with a good historic overview of how Inuit books came into being:

Changes in Transportation

Changes in transportation technology had a noticeable impact on the people of the Mackenzie region. Around 1900, steamboats began traveling the Mackenzie River.  This led to riverside forests being cut to fuel the steamships.  In 1922, a canvas-covered canoe was produced by the Hudson Bay Co. This boat replaced many of the traditional kayaks and plank boats used by the northern people.  In the 1920’s came the arrival of the outboard motor, bringing faster trips to water travel and a dependence on motor fuel.  During this time, the first airplane flights began in the Mackenzie Valley, bringing people and goods that were not normally entering the region.

Snowmobiles

The largest impact on the northern individual had to be the emergence of the snowmobile to northern life.  Snowmobiles emerged around World War II.  Winter hunters and prospectors readily used them to increase their range of travel.  These machines were not very reliable, keeping the dog team as a commonplace item in northern communities.  In 1962, the first “Skidoo” arrived in the north.  Stronger and lighter, this machine is what solidified the snowmobile in modern northern culture.  In the years after the Skidoo’s arrival, deaths were common.  Northerners were often caught in storms and had far away breakdowns.  The cost of running these machines and their reliability still kept dog teams around the north.

Here is a link to an article about steamships in the north:

Welfare of Wildlife

In the early 1900’s a shortage of wildlife occurred because of European demands for wildlife resources and through over hunting and trapping by northerners.  Local and European trappers cleared the beaver out of entire regions.  Fishermen, loggers, miners, & whalers moved into the north and their industries and personal needs for food took their toll on wildlife populations.  The introduction of rifles made hunting easier and delicacies emerged (tongue, liver).  The ease of hunting due to the rifle left meat and hides being sometimes wasted.

This situation brought on the emergence of early conservation efforts and ideas.  Most came from game officers and Hudson Bay Co. employees to preserve their jobs and industries.  Very early on, beaver preserves and wildlife sanctuaries were created.  Some of the earliest of these were Last Mountain Lake, Saskatchewan (established in 1887 as a bird sanctuary and game preserve, it is the oldest of its kind in North America) and Old Wives Lake, Saskatchewan (established in 1925 as a bird sanctuary).

Here is a link to a site about the Last Mountain Lake sanctuary:

Post World War II

After World War II (WWII), roads and oil pipelines ran over the Mackenzie Mountains from Alaska to Norman Wells.  With these roads came the American military presence.  People flocked to military forts and bases for work and food.  The average wage for native workers at forts was $2 per day, as recommended by the Canadian government.  This paltry amount was still more annually than could be made by an individual under traditional means. 

The effects of military presence were especially felt by northerners between 1949 & 1962.  A good example of these effects, although outside the Mackenzie region, is what happened at Fort Chimo.  Here, northerners lived off the salvage left behind by the American military.  Northerners ran their boats off fuel left behind for 13 years.  Clothing, machines, magazines, and furniture were left behind and used by the people who had gathered around the fort for work and food during the militaries occupation of the installation. 

The occupation of the military in the north jolted the north out of the fur trade industry.  With people hungry, animal populations declining, and the price of fur declining, many of the northern people originally earning a living from the fur trade industry turned to work at the military bases.  This took the region out of the governance of “The Big 3” – the police, the trader, and the missionary.  When the war ended, new needs came upon the people.  The fur trade industry was gone, the presence of missionaries was felt less, and the police provided less of the welfare services than they did in the past.

Here is a link to a site with an article about the post-war arctic:

The North and the Cold War

The cold war period encompassed the time period that brought much of what has been described in the post WWII section.  There are some significant occurrences of the cold war in the arctic that are worth some additional words.

Between 1946 & 1956, the US & Canada joined to build signal stations and air defense posts along the Arctic Ocean.  Some built near settlements attracted northerners for work and salvage and served as a refuge for the poor, as described in the previous section.

Many of these stations were part of the Distant Early Warning Line (DEW Line).  This was an allied warning system for enemy planes (the Russians).  The DEW Line lined the Arctic coast with defense installations.  It’s construction and upkeep provided work for northerners.  During this time a mixing of cultures occurred.  Newcomers from the southern regions adopted the parkas of the Mackenzie region.  Intermarriages occurred across dialects and kinship lines that would not have formerly occurred.  When the cold war died down, the DEW Line became obsolete, the infrastructure was abandoned, and the northern people were again left to fend for themselves.

Here is a site with maps, photos, history, and commentary about the DEW Line:

New Infrastructure Resulting from Oil & Gas

During the 1960’s, the oil and gas industries began to explore and develop the arctic region.  This development drastically changed the geography and communication in the north.  Airports are built as far north as Resolute Bay and farther north in Eureka, bringing the advent of very fast communication and travel into the region that had up to this point still been remote.  The Dempster Highway was built from the Yukon to Inuvik, connecting the northern arctic region by way of highway.  The Mackenzie Highway was built between Tuktoyaktuk and the Arctic Ocean, further connecting the region.  A final communication link that forever changed the arctic north was the advent of Satellite Anik, bringing live TV broadcasts across the north.  Before this time one had to go to great lengths to watch Video in the north.  Now TV can be as much a part of northern culture as anywhere else in the world.

Here is a link showing the Dempster Highway:

Hard Times

The time between 1900 & 1939 were generally hard times for northern people.  Epidemics of influenza wiped out nearly half of all Inuit and epidemics of the measles affected many.  There were also food shortages as the northern people tried to adapt from their subsistence lifestyle the new western lifestyle that was emerging.  During this same time period the prices received for furs were declining and the prices for flour and ammunition were increasing.  By 1939 the northern people still had no voice in economics, religion, law, or politics in the region.

Here is a link to an account of the influenza epidemic of 1918:

Post Cold War

After the cold war had ended, many people of the north were again left with few resources for survival.  This led many families to move to towns.  This move caused hunters to have to travel farther to find wildlife, while women and children stayed home for work and school.  Traditionally, hunters and their families would travel together to hunting and fishing camps.  Under this new situation, hunters were out alone and often would not stay out as long.  Coupled with this is the fact that many of the young people of this time did not have skills in the old subsistence lifestyle and new social stigmas had emerged.  Hunting and trapping were not as highly regarded by the younger generation.

With the jobs and resources of the cold war north gone, the old subsistence lifestyle had to meet the needs of the people.  But, there were more people in need and less wildlife to provide for these needs.  This situation was compounded by the younger generation not knowing the traditional ways and their lack of regard for these skills. 

To counter these effects the Canadian government began to provide welfare for the northern people.  Family allowances, old age assistance, needy mothers allowance, and food relief were supplied.  The food relief came in the form of “sensible goods”, which were non-traditional, western food items.  This relief did stave off starvation, but it also brought changes to the diets of the northern people.  Another result of this welfare was that a mother’s old age assistance could earn her more than her son’s hunting and trapping.  This brought disenchantment and shame to some in the north.

Here is a link to a paper called "Interactions between wage employment and subsistence lifestyle: Oil development on the North Slope, Alaska.":

New Migrations

One answer to the problem of providing for the people has been to move the people of the north to new hunting grounds or to places with employment.  This idea asks the people to adapt to a new land, a new climate, and a new lifestyle.  The result of a policy like this is that the mingling of bands and dialects would occur again, further diluting the diversity of the people of the north.  The new locations often offered better lifestyles, but did they offer self-sufficiency?

A Case Study: A New Town in the Mackenzie Delta - Inuvik

A new town was planned and built in the Mackenzie Delta in 1953, the town of Inuvik.  Inuvik was intended to be the transportation center of the northwest coast of the Arctic Ocean.  In the creation of this transportation center, the Canadian government attempted to close the town of Aklavik and move its people to Inuvik.  Many of the Aklavik locals did not want to move, in spite of the great Mackenzie River eroding its banks near the town.  The town of Inuvik was built and is a center for industry on the Arctic Ocean, but many people stayed in Aklavik, which is still a close-knit community.

Here is a website with current photos of Inuvik and the history of the move of the town:

Economy in a Modernizing North

Area Economic Survey

In 1949, a report was written by the Canadian government on ways to improve living of northern people.  Several projects were suggested to help improve the economy of the north.  Some of these projects included fur farming and livestock projects.  Fur farming proved to be difficult.  One such project was a Musk ox fur harvesting project in which a man was paid to follow musk ox and collect their wool as they lost it to the ground and bushes (musk oxen are very large and it would be difficult if not dangerous to attempt to shear there wool).  He spent a season doing this and collected enough wool to make a sock.  He was paid $5000, an expensive sock!  Some of the livestock projects included integrating pigs, sheep, and chickens – all of which failed.  Another project attempted to cross domestic cattle with Tibetan Yaks to produce a hardy herding animal for the north.  This project also failed. 

Here is a link that will take you to a site with timelines outlining events in Canada during the 1940’s:

Governmental Changes for Northern People

Here is a timeline of major governmental changes that affected the people of the north.

•      1952 – Yukon and NWT divided into 2 districts

•      1953 – registered Indians voted in a federal election for the 1^st time

•      1962 – Inuit of eastern arctic voted for 1^st time

•      1972 – Wally Firth of the NWT became the 1^st native member in Parliament

•      1999 – Nunavut formed - Inuits get there own territory, 1/5 of the land of Canada

Here is a great site with a detailed and up-to-date political history of the Northwest Territory, including dividing from the Yukon:

Links to home pages of the Northern groups of the APG:

Deh Cho, Dene, Gwich'in, Inuvialuit, Metis, and Sahtu

Deh Cho:

References by Subject

Wildlife (Game/Fish) Populations

            1.  Ceballos, G. and Ehrlich, P. (2002 )“Mammal Population Losses and the Extinction Crisis”.

                        Science 296(5569)L 904-907.

2.      Novak, M.( 1987) “FurBearer Harvests in North America 1600 – 1984”. Toronto : Ontario Trappers Association.                                                           

3.      Laut, A. (1921) The fur trade of America. New York : Macmillan.

4.      Greenbie, S.  (1929) Frontiers and the fur trade. New York, The John Day company.

5.      Woodward, A. (1979) The denominators of the fur trade : an anthology on the material culture of the fur trade. Pasadena, Calif. : Westernlore Publications.

6.      Calef, G. & Heard, D. (1981) “The status of three tundra wintering caribou herds in northeastern mainland, Northwest Territories”. [Yellowknife] : NWT Wildlife Service.

7.      Notzke, C. (1994) .Aboriginal Peoples and Natural Resources in Canada. Captus University Publications. Ontario.

Languages

1.      Collis, D.R.F. (1990) “Arctic Languages: An Awakening”. [Paris] : Unesco.                                                     

2.      Grey, E. (1999) “New World Babel: Languages and Nations in Early America”. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press.                            

3.      Krauss, M. and McGary, M.J. (1980) “Alaska Native Languages”.[Fairbanks] : Alaska Native Language Center.                                         

4.      Krauss, M. () “Alaskan Native Languages: Past, Present, and Future”.        [Fairbanks, Alaska : Alaska Native Language Center], 1980                            

5.      Liedtke, S. (1997) “Languages of the First Nations”. München : LINCOM EUROPA.

Human Population

1.      Thomason, T. (1996) “American Indian Population Statistics”. Flagstaff, AZ : American Indian Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, Institute for Human Development, Arizona University Affiliated Program, Northern Arizona University ; [Washington, DC] : U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.                                      

2.      Thorton, R. (1987) “American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492”. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press.

3.      US Census Bureau – “Fact Finder for the Nation: Population Statistics”

-         “Handbook of North American Indians: Fact Finder for the Nation: Population Statistics”