Chapter 2. National Standards: Bibliography

The following bibliography was developed for those who would like to know more about the National Standards, their historical and philosophical backgrounds, classroom implementation, assessment, professional development, and so forth. Since the standards movement is new to foreign language education, relatively few books or articles are available. If you find or publish articles or books that would be useful for those who would like to implement the National Standards in their classroom, develop local standards, develop assessment tools, and so forth, please contact the office of the Alliance of Associations of Teachers of Japanese--aatj@colorado.edu--in Boulder, Colorado (303) 492-5487 so that we can update this information.

Standards-based education is not new. Its beginnings go back to the 1980s. A convergence of economic, political, and educational forces initiated the movement and continues to propel it into the new millennium. The movement to develop national and state standards (content/performance) in core subject areas has its origins in the perceived inadequacies of the U.S. public school system. The situation has long been viewed as one of crisis proportions which threatens the nation's ability to create a labor force which can effectively compete in the new global economy. Several articles from Kappan, a monthly publication put out by Phi Delta Kappa, are included in the annotated bibliography below. These articles put the standards movement in a historical perspective and provide a good introduction to the national debate that has surrounded the movement since its inception.

How To Use Standards in the Classroom by Douglas Harris and Judy Carr (1996) offers very practical step-by-step guidance in the implementation of standards. This book was specifically written for classroom teachers who are trying to sort through the often confusing layers of national, state, and district standards in an effort to design standards-based instructional units they can actually use in their classrooms.

Many of the articles listed here can be found on the ERIC web site--http://ericir.syr.edu/Eric/index.html. Citations with ED or EJ numbers may be read on microfiche in institutions with an ERIC collection or ordered from EDRS (CBIS Federal), 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, VA 22153-2852, (800) 443-3742.

• Ball, D.L. "Implementing NCTM Standards: Hopes and Hurdles." Issue paper 92-2. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning,1992. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED352264 (1992).
• Berkson, William. "A Place to Stand: Breaking the Impasse over Standards." Kappan (November 1997).
• This article addresses the problems that have beset national standards from the beginning, chief amongst these being the widely-held belief that education should remain under local control. The author proposes a compromise which is in the form of a "National Basic Skills Certificate" which would enable non-college bound students (approximately fifty percent of all students) to acquire the basic skills they would need to be on track for "good" jobs.
• "Changing the System." Teacher Magazine 3.8 (1992): 42-44. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ447933 (1992).
• Cohen, David. "What Standards for National Standards?" Kappan (June 1995).
• This article highlights the potential for educational improvement through Goals 2000 and the standards movement. The author cautions readers to view standards as a long-term process and commitment which if handled correctly could lead to a productive national dialogue that could positively impact learning throughout the country. The need for clarity and purpose in these efforts is stressed along with the need for ongoing education of the general public.
• "Developing Content Standards: Creating a Process for Change." CPRE Policy Brief. Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Englewood Institute of Politics. Rutgers University. New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1568. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED362981 (1993).
• This is a research-based study of the process by which standards are developed. It includes practical suggestions for the standard-setting process.
• Eisner, Elliot W. "Standards for American Schools: Help or Hindrance?" Kappan (1995).
• In this article the author examines the standards movement of the 1990s from a historical perspective and finds parallels to educational reform efforts of the 1960s. Both movements seem to stem from a similar need to transform learning into a more objectively scientific process, the success of which can be clearly measured and verified. True reform, according to the author, will require a fundamental re-examination of the relationship among schools, communities, teachers, and students.
• "Federal Initiatives to Support Systemic Reform." The ERIC Review 3.2 (1994): 8-10.
• This is a brief article which gives an overview of the Goals 2000 initiative and federal support of standards-based reform, including model standards projects and assistance under the re-authorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
• Gagnon, P. "National Standards: Bringing Them to the Classroom." American Educator 18.3 (1994): 15, 28-32.
• In this article terms such as "content standard" and "curriculum frameworks" are clarified through the presentation of concrete examples in World History and English.
• Haakenson, Paul. "Recent Trends in Global/International Education." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED373021 (1994).
• This article examines trends in global/international education, including their impact on teacher preparation programs at the university level, the development of national standards and frameworks, model programs, and the infusion of global education into the elementary and middle school curricula.
• Harris, Douglas E. and Judy F. Carr. "How To Use Standards in the Classroom." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED400598 (1996).
• The proliferation of standards developed at the national and state levels makes preparing a meaningful classroom curriculum a daunting task. This book was designed for teachers who seek a model for designing standards-based units of study to use in their own classrooms.
• "Higher Education Coordinating Board State of Washington Draft Document for Competencies." Part of World Languages Standards. For more information contact Kellie Anton, kelliea@hecb.wa.gov.
• Inman, Julie E. and Robert LaBouve, comps. "The Impact of Education Reform: A Survey of State Activities." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED383187 (1994).
• This paper presents an overview of the impact of foreign language teaching reform in all fifty states. Included in this overview is information on student enrollments; Foreign Language Assistance Program-funded projects (FLAP); systemic reform; standards, testing, and assessment; agency or department restructuring and reorganization.
• James, D. "Re-shaping the 'College-level' Curriculum: Problems and Possibilities." In H.S. Lepke, ed., Shaping the Future: Challenges and Opportunities. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 1989.
• In this chapter the author discusses the rationale for a comprehensive reshaping of foreign language curricula at U.S. colleges and universities and possibilities for implementing large-scale changes to create realistic sequences of courses.
• Jennings, John F. "School Reform Based on What is Taught and Learned." Kappan (June 1995).
• This article examines the standards movement within the context of earlier education reform efforts of the 1970s and 1980s and analyzes why those efforts did not result in substantive improvements in the performance of the nation's public schools. The author discusses the existence of a fatal "disconnect" between testing (often state-directed) and curriculum and instruction. The article goes on to explain how the standards movement takes the mystery and confusion out of education by making it clear to teachers what they need to teach and to students and their parents what is to be learned. The development of performance standards will make it clear to everyone how well students must know the content and how they are to demonstrate that knowledge. National content standards do not constitute a mandate for a national curriculum but rather a starting point for individual states to grapple with difficult questions and work toward consensus.
• Kendall, John S. and Robert J. Marzano. "The Systematic Identification and Articulation of Content Standards and Benchmarks. Update." Aurora, CO: Mid-Continent Regional Educational Research Lab, 1994. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED368769 (1994).
• This is a comprehensive and detailed progress report on the development of national content standards for all core content areas, including foreign language.
• Lachat, Mary Ann. "High Standards for All Students: Opportunities and Challenges." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED385036 (1994).
• This report on standards considers national educational reform, New Hampshire initiatives and implications of standards for students with special needs. Information on national curriculum standards projects for mathematics, art, history, civics and government, geography, English and foreign languages, economics, and science are included.
• Lewis , Anne C. "An Overview of the Standards Movement." Kappan (June 1995).
• This article begins with definitions of the different types of standards and then examines the process by which standards are developed as well as some of the potential roadblocks which stand in the way of universal public acceptance of standards-based education.
• "Making Use of National Standards." ASCD Update (November 1994): 1.
• Marzano, Robert J. "Eight Questions About Implementing Standards-Based Education." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED410230 (1996).
• This article addresses eight issues which policymakers and educators should address before beginning the process of implementing standards-based education at the local level.
• McLaughlin, Milbrey W. and Lorrie A. Shepard. "Improving Education through Standards-Based Reform: A Report by the National Academy of Education Panel on Standards-Based Education Reform." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED387867 (1995). 91 pages.
• "National Board for Professional Teachers Standards." Available from ACTFL in 2000.
• National Education Goals Panel. "The National Education Goals Report: Building a Nation of Learners." Washington, D.C., 1991, 1992, 1993.
• Issued annually from 1991-2000, these reports track and analyze progress made in achieving each of the six national goals. They are brief and easy to read.
• "NCATE Announces Teacher Preparation Reform Project." AACTE Briefs (November 28, 1994): 8.
• Noddings, Nel. "Thinking About Standards." Kappan (November 1997).
• This article is cautious about the standards movement. While acknowledging the potential value in standards, the author reminds readers of the failure of past education reform movements because they failed to grapple with the issue of how to instruct and encourage learning.
• O'Neil, J. "On the New Standards Project: A Conversation with Lauren Resnick and Warren Simmons." Educational Leadership 50.5 (1993): 17-21. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ457355 (1993).
• Phi Delta KAPPAN (June 1995). Four feature articles which address the issue of standards.
• "An Overview of the Standards Movement" by Anne C. Lewis
• "What Standards for National Standards?" by David Cohen
• "Standards for American Schools: Help or Hindrance?" by Elliot W. Eisner
• "School Reform Based on What is Taught and Learned" by John F. Jennings
• Phi Delta KAPPAN (November 1997). Feature articles on standards.
• "Thinking About Standards" by Nel Noddings
• "Using Standards: To Standardize or to Customize Learning?" by Charles M. Reigeluth
• "'A Place to Stand': Breaking the Impasse over Standards" by William Berkson
• Reigeluth, Charles M. "Using Standards: To Standardize or to Customize Learning?" Kappan (November 1997).
• This article addresses the confusion that still surrounds standards-based education. Standards can be used for standardization of education, thus guaranteeing that all students come out of the educational system the same, or they can be used for "customization," which would enable students to reach their individual goals. The author points out that uniform standards for all students combined with a punitive monitoring system will not result in a substantial improvement of the American educational system. Standards should be used instead to define different levels of academic attainment within each academic area without any linkage between standards, age level, and time. Standards in non-academic areas should also be developed. The article cautions policy makers regarding the need to provide the infrastructure and pedagogical training for educators so that they can successfully help students meet standards.
• Riley, Richard W. "World-Class Standards: The Key to Educational Reform. From the Desk of the Secretary of Education." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ469398 (1993)
• This paper discusses the development of content and student performance standards in the eight core curriculum areas of math, science, civics, history, geography, the arts, English, and foreign languages to help meet Goal Three of the National Education Goals.
• Rivera, Charlene and Mark LaCelle-Peterson. "Will the National Education Goals Improve the Progress of English Language Learners?" ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED362073 (1993).
• This article examines the situation of English language learners in light of the National Education Goals and the resulting standards movement. The authors point out that although these students constitute a significant percentage of the total U.S. school-aged population, their needs are not being adequately addressed by the National Education Goals. The linguistic and cultural diversity of this segment of the U.S. student population demands the national attention and concern of educators and policy makers.
• "School Reform: Getting It Right." American Educator 18.3 (1994): 12- 13.
• Shanker, A. "Making Standards Count." American Educator 18.3 (1994): 14, 16-19.
• This essay explains why students in other industrialized countries outperform their U.S. peers. Factors include common core curricula and motivating real-world consequences.
• "Standards-Based School Reform and Students with Disabilities." Center for Policy Research on the Impact of General and Special Education Reform, 1012 Cameron St., Alexandria, VA 22314. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED398713 (1996).
• This paper examines trends in educational reform at the national and state levels and implications for students with disabilities. Research findings indicate that the needs of students with disabilities are not being adequately taken into consideration in the development of state content standards and curriculum frameworks. A more active participation of special education teachers and administrators is encouraged.
• "Standards for All: A Vision for Education in the 21st Century. High Standards for All Students. Goals 2000: Educate America." Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1993. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED367665 (1993).
• This report examines how the vision of the Goals 2000 Program is being translated into practice at the national, state, and local levels through various standard-setting initiatives.
• "Status Report on Voluntary National Standards in Education." Educational Forum 58.4 (1994): 421-28.
• The data in this report were collected from educational leaders working to write standards in each discipline. The report includes information on content/performance/assessment/teaching standards, skills, format, status/timelines, implementation and dissemination plans, professional development, and contact information.
• Sykes, Gary and Peter Plastrik. "Standard Setting as Educational Reform: Trends and Issues Paper No. 8." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED358068 (1993).
• This paper explores standard-setting as an agent in educational reform and the issues of coordination, compatibility, and coherence in the setting of standards in multiple disciplines.
• "What Goals 2000 Means for You." The ERIC Review 3.2 (1994): 10-11. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED376795 (1994).
• This is a brief article presenting the ten Goal 2000 elements and posing questions on each to guide community members and school staff in creating frameworks.

The movement toward standards in foreign language education can be traced back to the early 1980s and the development of the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. This pioneering effort grew naturally out of the proficiency movement which defined students' language competencies in terms of how well they could actually communicate in the language rather than how well they could manipulate isolated elements of a language or how long they had studied a language. The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (1986) provided language educators with common performance descriptions which have made possible a more uniform and objective way to rate students' facility in a language.

Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century was published in early 1996. This well-organized and highly readable document represented the culmination of a massive three-year effort to articulate national content standards for foreign languages. It was superceded by the comprehensive Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century (1999), which includes Chinese, Classical Languages, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. Two other books which should be included in any initial study of national foreign language standards are Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories and Practices (1999), edited by June K. Phillips, and National Standards: A Catalyst for Reform (1996), edited by Robert Lafayette. Since national content standards for foreign language education are still relatively new, there is little or no published research of which we are aware that has addressed the impact of national standards on the efficacy of teachers' instruction and second language acquisition by students. Most of the literature is currently focused on what national content standards are and how they can be effectively implemented at different levels within the public school system.

• Brecht, R.D. and A.R. Walton. "The Future Shape of Language Learning in the New World of Global Communication: Consequences for Higher Education and Beyond." Foreign Language Learning: The Journey of a Lifetime. Ed. R. Donato and R.M. Terry. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1994.
• This chapter examines current, and future economic, social and political realities and how language education in the U.S. will have to change if it is to successfully meet the communication needs of language learners. It challenges many of the fundamental assumptions on which the current system of language education is based and paints in broad strokes a picture of what language teaching and learning might look like in the future. The paper is intended to encourage reflection and discussion.
• Byrnes, Heidi. "Foreign Language Program Articulation from High School to the University." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED321586 (1990).
• This article addresses the issue of articulation between the high school and university levels in light of the national need to dramatically increase the percentage of the U.S. population that possesses high "levels of language competency" so that the country can become more competitive in the global marketplace. The author looks specifically at the case of South Carolina, where a mandated two-year foreign language requirement for university entrance has necessitated increased dialogue and coordination of secondary and postsecondary language programs.
• College Board. "Crosswalks: Pacesetter Spanish and the National Standards." College Board, New York, NY, 1996.
• Curtain, H.A. and C.A. Pesola. Languages and Children--Making the Match. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1994.
• This book functions as a university methods text for preparing teachers and as a handbook for administrators and language educators as they initiate, develop, implement, and articulate K-8 language programs. The book is comprehensive in scope, addressing issues including goal setting, language and program model selection, staff selection, lesson design, and assessment. The authors present a balance of theory, research, and practice. Although the book predates the publication of national standards for foreign language, it does address in depth the proficiency movement and content-based language instruction.
• De Jong, John. "The Need for Standards in Language Education." System 23.4 (1995): 441-44.
• The article focuses on the need to control quality and progress in education, especially at the interfaces between successive segments within the educational system and between the system and society. The author touches on actions taken by the Council of Europe and ACTFL to set standards.
• Draper, J. "National Standards in Foreign Language Education: Answering the Questions." ERIC Bulletin 17.1 (1993).
• Genesee, F., ed. Educating Second Language Children: The Whole Child, the Whole Curriculum, the Whole Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• This book presents a holistic, integrated, multi-faceted approach to the education of 4-12 year old second-language learners of English. In order to design an effective instructional program, educators must take into account the physical, social, and cognitive needs of each student. A one-size-fits-all approach which only looks at children in terms of their "lack" of English does not work.
• James, Dorothy. "The Impact on Higher Education of Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century." ACTFL Newsletter (Fall 1998).
• In this ACTFL White Paper, the author discusses the need for change in foreign language instruction in U.S. colleges and universities and the need for these institutions to develop an awareness and understanding of the new national foreign language standards. Only in this way will it be possible to develop an articulated, seamless K-16 language sequence which empowers students.
• Lafayette, Robert C., ed. National Standards: A Catalyst for Reform. ACTFL Series. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1996.
• This collaborative effort of a group of language educators addresses a broad range of topics related to national foreign language standards. Topics addressed include the standards movement, the impact of standards on foreign language teacher education and continuing professional development, technology and language learning, implications of standards, and student assessment.
• Larter, Sylvia and James Donnelly. "Toronto's Benchmark Program." Educational Leadership 50.5 (1993): 59-62. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ457366 (1993).
• Benchmarks are designed to help clarify educational goals and illuminate the nature of good performance for teachers, students, and parents. Since 1987, the Toronto Board of Education has developed over 100 language and mathematics benchmarks at grades 3, 6, and 8, combining observation with holistic evaluation. Instruction, learning, and evaluation should occur simultaneously and continuously, with many authentic performance activities.
• Lindquist, Mary Montgomery and Linda P. Rosen. "Professional Collaboration: A Perspective from the Mathematics Standards." Collaborations: Meeting New Goals, New Realities. Ed. June K. Phillips. North Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1997. 1-20.
• McMillan, Cindy, comp. "Language Education at the State Level: An Update of Activities." Joint National Committee for Languages, Washington, DC.: National Council of State Supervisors of Foreign Language, 1997.
• Metcalf, Michael F. "Articulating the Teaching of Foreign Languages: The Minnesota Project." ADFL Bulletin 26.3 (1995): 52-54.
• This paper describes a pilot project designed to address the problem of articulating postsecondary language study. The project consists of elementary school immersion teachers and 21 foreign language teachers from high schools and colleges. The project has the potential of effecting a statewide adoption of proficiency standards and an improvement in the quality of instruction.
• Oregon Department of Education. "Standards Base and Design Process." 1998.
• This document includes a set of guiding questions that would enable an educator to move towards a standards-based method of instruction.
• Oregon Department of Education. "Teaching and Learning to Standards." 1998.
• This document provides methods by which teachers can move towards a standards-based system of instruction. It includes the Oregon Academic Content Standards and other supporting standards, such as Character Education and Essential Learning Skills. It then deals with the tools for designing standards-based instruction. This includes Mapping Strategies, Standards-Based Planning, Teaching and Assessment, Program Mapping and Planning, and the Certificate of Initial Mastery Planning Guide.
• Oregon State of Higher Education Japanese Project. "Reaching Out." Kyooryoku 4.1 (1998).
• This article is based on an international conference held in Oregon in December 1997 to discuss standards-based education in foreign language around the world.
• Phillips, June K. "The Challenge of Setting National Standards for the Study of Foreign Languages." Dimension: Language '94. Changing Images in Foreign Languages. Ed. Robert M. Terry. Valdosta, GA: Southern Conference on Language Teaching, 1994. 1-5.
• Phillips, June K., ed. Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories, and Practices. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1999.
• This series of articles looks at how research, theories of language acquisition and effective instruction have converged to create and implement the standards.
• Rosenbusch, Marcia H. "Guidelines for Starting an Elementary School Foreign Language Program." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED383227 (1995).
• This article offers school district administrators, teachers, and parents step-by-step guidance in how to set up effective elementary foreign language programs which will enable students to meet the new national foreign language standards through a long articulated sequence of language instruction and thus avoid the pitfalls of FLES programs of the 1950s and 1960s.
• Sandrock, Paul. "Competency-Based Admission: A Project of the University of Wisconsin System." ADFL Bulletin 26.3 (1995): 55-57.
• This paper discusses a project to implement an alternative university admission system based on clearly defined competencies in several subject areas, i.e., culture, writing, speaking, listening, reading, and transferable skills (provisional). Developing national standards will inform this project, assisting in the creation of common goals in foreign language education.
• Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century. National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996. P.O. Box 1897, Lawrence, KS 66044.
• This book represents the culmination of a three-year collaborative effort of several national foreign language organizations to develop national content standards for foreign language. The standards are generic (not language-specific) and are organized around the five goal areas of Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities. The book is well-organized and includes sufficient background information and guidance in the form of sample progress indicators and learning scenarios.
• "Struggling for Standards: An Education Week Special Report." Education Week (April 21, 1995).
• Thornton, Patricia. "Rallying Around a Standard." Japan Language Teachers Network Quarterly 14.3 (May 1999).
• Wells, E. "Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Implications and Perceptions." ACTFL Newsletter (Fall 1998).
• This ACTFL White Paper reflects on Standards for Foreign Language Learning and the critical issue of articulation between secondary and postsecondary institutions. The author recognizes many of the strengths inherent in the document while reminding educators at both levels that there needs to be more direct communication and collaboration. A K-12 national effort to develop extended seamless articulated sequences of language instruction based on the standards document is not enough. The paper draws attention to the critical role that literacy skills play in university language curricula and openly questions whether or not the standards, as they are currently formulated, place adequate emphasis on this skill.

In the National Standards, communication in foreign languages is conceptualized in a new way: interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational communication. The traditional four language skills--listening, speaking, reading, and writing--are viewed as not separate skills but as integrated skills in the National Standards. Adair-Hauck (1996) and Adair-Hauck and Cumo-Johanssen (1997) discuss ways to teach with the four skills integrated.

• Adair-Hauck, Bonnie J. "Practical Whole Language Strategies for Secondary and University Level FL Students." Foreign Language Annals 29 (1996): 253-87.
• Adair-Hauck, Bonnie J. and Philomena Cumo-Johanssen. "Communication Goal: Meaning Making through Whole-Language Approach." Collaborations: Meeting New Goals, New Realities. Ed. June K. Phillips. Northeast Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company, 1997.
• Chaudron, C. Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
• Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985.
• Ellis, R. Instructed Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990.
• Gass, S.M. and J. Schachter, eds. Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Glisan, Eileen W. "A Plan for Teaching Listening Comprehension: Adaptation of an Instructional Reading Model." Foreign Language Annals 21 (1988): 9-16.
• Hadley, A.O., ed. Research in Language Learning: Principles, Processes, and Prospects. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1993.
• Hall, Joan Kelly. "The Communication Standards." Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories, and Practices. Ed. June K. Phillips. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1999. 15-56.
• Hall, Joan Kelly. " 'Aw, Man, Where We Going?': Classroom Interaction and the Development of L2 Interactional Competence." Issues in Applied Linguistics 6.2 (1995): 37-62.
• Hymes, D. "On Communicative Competence." Ed. J.B. Pride and J. Holmes. Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1972.
• Johnson, Karen E. Understanding Communication in the Second Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
• Joiner, Elizabeth G. "Teaching Listening: Ends and Means." Georgetown University Roundtable on Languages and Linguistics. Ed. J.E. Altais. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1986.
• Kinsley, Carol W. and Kate McPherson, eds. Enriching the Curriculum through Service Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1995.
• The book illustrates the ways in which practitioners from many schools and communities share thoughtful service-learning programs. Service learning provides opportunities for meeting the Communication goal.
• Larsen-Freeman, D. and M.H. Long. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman, 1991.
• McIntosh, Joel, et al. Thematic, Interdisciplinary Curricula. Update on Gifted Education, 1992.
• The authors insist that the interdisciplinary curriculum must include accessible resources for teaching the theme. Under this kind of curriculum, students are afforded the opportunity to go out into the community and members of the community come into the classroom and share their knowledge with students.
• Phillips, June K. "Practical Implications of Recent Research in Reading." Foreign Language Annals 17 (1984): 285-96.
• Savignon, S.J. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Menlo Park, CA: Adison-Wesley, 1983.
• Scott, Virginia M. "Write from the Start: A Task-Oriented Development of Writing Program for Foreign Language Students." Dimension: Language '91 Making a World of Difference. Ed. R. Terry. Valdosta, GA: Southern Conference on Language Teaching, 1992.
• Shrum, Judith and Eileen Glisan. Teacher's Handbook: Contextualized Language Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1994.
• Terry, Robert. "Teaching and Evaluating Writing as a Communicative Skill." Foreign Language Annals 22 (1989): 43-52.

The study of another language is intimately connected to the study of culture. Seelye, Teaching Culture, Samovar and Porter, Intercultural Communication, and Golinick and Chinn, Multicultural Education, are excellent resources that can provide teachers with tools to teach to the Cultures goal. All texts also contain activities and readings that would be instrumental in implementing the culture strand.

• Bennet, Milton J., Janet Bennett and Wendy Allen. "Culture in Second Language Classroom: A Conceptual Overview." Presentation at the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, 1996.
• Byrnes, Heidi. "The Teaching of Culture: A Module." Modules to Assist Teaching Assistants in First and Second Year Foreign Language Courses. Ed. Grace S. Burkhart. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998.
• Center for Applied Linguistics. "The National Education Goals: Goal 3, the Issues of Language and Culture." Washington, D.C., 1993.
• Fantini, Alvino. E., ed. New Ways in Teaching Culture. Alexandria, VA: TESOL, 1997.
• Fiedler, Fred E., Terence Mitchell and Harry C. Triandis. "The Culture Assimilator: An Approach to Cross-Cultural Training." Journal of Applied Psychology 55 (1971): 95-102.
• Gollnick, D. and P. Chinn. Muticultural Education in Pluralistic Society. Riverside, NJ: Macmillan, 1994.
• This book uses culture as a basis for understanding Multicultural Education. The authors describe seven microcultures to which Americans living in the United States belong. This book focuses on the perspectives and practices of the Cultures goal.
• Kramsch, Claire. Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
• Lafayette, Robert C. "Integrating the Teaching of Culture into the Foreign Language Classroom." Northeast Conference Reports. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference, 1988.
• Lange, Dale L. "Collaboration on National and State Standards for Culture: Is There Alignment?" Presentation at the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, New York, 1997.
• Samovar, I. and R. Porter. Intercultural Communication: A Reader. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1994.
• This book contains a series of 42 articles that deal with understanding communication principles in interacting with people from diverse cultures. Some of the topics of discussion are socio-cultural influences, forces on human interaction and verbal/non-verbal symbols used in intercultural communication. This book focuses on the perspectives and practices of the culture goal.
• Schwarts, Ana Maria and Mark S. Kavanaugh. "Addressing the Cultures Goal with Authentic Video." Collaborations: Meeting New Goals, New Realities. Ed. June K. Phillips. Northeast Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1997.
• Seelye, H. Ned. "Analysis and Teaching of the Cross-Cultural Context." Foreign Language Education: An Overview. Ed. Emma M. Birkmaier. ACTFL series. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1972. 37-81.
• Seelye, H. Ned. Teaching Culture: Strategies for Intercultural Communication. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1993.
• This book provides tools that would help develop intercultural communications skills. These tools center around goals that one would set in order to understand another culture. In addition, the book provides concrete, creative ideas for helping students understand and appreciate other cultures. It focuses on the perspectives and practices of the Cultures goal.
• Seelye, H. Ned. ed. Experiential Activities for Intercultural Learning. Vol. 1. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 1996.
• Singerman, Alan. J., ed. Acquiring Cross-Cultural Competence: Four States for Students of French. AATF National Commission on Cultural Competence. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1996.
• Stewart, E.; Bennett, M. American Cultural Patterns: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 1991.

The following papers and books are useful for the understanding of the National Standards, especially in the goal area of Connections. Some papers and books are not directly related to foreign language teaching but are useful when implementing the National Standards. In particular, those which deal with interdisciplinary or integrated curriculum often present solutions for logistical difficulties encountered during standards implementation. Also, the National K-12 Foreign Language Resource Center (1997) is a useful resource for teachers.

• Allen, W., Keith Anderson and Leon Narvaez. "Foreign Language Across the Curriculum: The Applied Foreign Language Component." Foreign Language Annals 25 (1992): 11-19.
• The Applied Foreign Language Component and other approaches to integrating discipline content with advanced foreign language work are explored in this paper. Practical guidelines for implementing such programs, including forming faculty alliances, modifying courses, recruiting students, and expanding library holdings, are included.
• Brington, Donna M. and Peter Master. New Ways in Content-Based Instruction. Alexandria, VA: TESOL, 1997.
• Brington, Donna M., Marguerite Ann Snow and Marjorie B. Wesche. Content-Based Second Language Instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1989.
• Caine, R.N. and Geoffrey Caine. Making Connections. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991.
• This book provides two kinds of information: (1) well-grounded criteria for making effective choices when designing and implementing a content-based curriculum, and (2) useful, concrete suggestions concerning how to best implement a content-based program.
• Cantoni-Harvey, Gina. Content-Area Language Instruction. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1987.
• Carson, Joan G., Josephine A. Taylor and Laureen Fredella. The Role of Content in Task-Based Classroom. New York: Longman, 1997.
• Cloud, Nancy. "Teacher Competence in Content-Based Instruction." Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning. Ed. Myriam Met. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley, 1998.
• Crandal, Jodi and G. Richard Tucker. "Content-Based Instruction in Second and Foreign Languages." Foreign Language Education: Issues and Strategies. Ed. Amado Padilla, Halford H. Fairchild and Concepcion Valadez. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE, 1990.
• Frichera, Virginia, M. Fichera and H. Stephen Straight, eds. Using Languages Across the Curriculum. Translation Perspectives X. Binghamton: State University of New York at Binghamton, Center for Research in Translation, 1997.
• Genesee, Fred. Integrating Language and Content: Lessons from Immersion. Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning, 1994.
• Hannah, Joyce. "Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation. 'Descriptions of Two Existing Interdisciplinary Programs.' " VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1995.
• Jacobs, Heidi. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1989.
• Juarasek, Richard. "Integrating Foreign Language into the College Curriculum." Modern Language Journal 72 (1988): 52-58.
• Krueger, Merle and Frank Ryan, eds. Language and Content: Discipline- and Content-Based Approaches to Language Study. D.C. Heath and Company, 1993.
• The book is a compilation of the papers presented during the conference at Brown University. A tension between disciplinary convention and curricular innovation appears in the papers.
• Lafayette, Robert C. "Subject Matter Content: What Every Language Teacher Should Know." Developing Language Teachers for a Changing World. Ed. Gail Guntermann. ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series No. 22. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook, 1993.
• Leaver, Betty Lou and Stephen B. Stryker. "Content-Based Instruction for Foreign Language Classrooms." Foreign Language Annals 2 (1989): 269-75.
• Liskin-Gasparro, Judith. "Assessment: From Content Standards to Student Performance." National Standards: A Catalyst for Reform. Ed. Robert C. Lafayette. ACTFL Series. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1996. 169-96.
• Lorents, Eileen B. and Pierre Verdaguer. "Connections: A K-8 University Collaboration to Promote Interdisciplinary Teaching." Collaborations: Meeting New Goals, New Realities. Ed. June K. Phillips. Northeast Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1997.
• Met, Myriam. "Teaching Content Through a Second Language." Educating Second Language Children. Ed. Fred Genesee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• Met, Myriam. "Curriculum Decision-Making in Content-Based Second Language Teaching." Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education. Ed. Fred Genesee and Jason Cenoz. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1998.
• Met, Myriam. Making Connections. Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories, and Practices. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1999.
• The book examines how the Connections goal is consonant with current theories about learning in foreign language learning.
• Met, Myriam. Enhancing Second Language Development Through Content-Teaching. Infancia y Aprendizaje (forthcoming).
• Met, Myriam, H. Anderson, E. Brega and N. Rhodes. "Elementary School Foreign Language: Key Link in the Chain of Learning." Foreign Languages: Key Links in the Chain of Learning. Ed. Robert G. Mead. Middlebury, VT.: Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 1983.
• National K-12 Foreign Language Resource Center. "Connecting Thematic Units to the Standards at the K-8 Level." Bridging the standards into the classroom: A teacher's guide. Ed. M.H. Rosenbusch. Ames, IA: Iowa State University, 1997.
• Renner, Christopher E. "Enriching Learners' Language Production through Content-Based Instruction." Paper presented in Modena, Italy, March 1996. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED411694 (1996).
• Argues that content-based teaching effectively teaches language skills while supporting development of critical thinking, intercultural communication, and student participation. Examples of content-based activities are listed.
• Schofer, Peter. "Literature and Communicative Competence: A Springboard for the Development of Critical Thinking and Aesthetic Appreciation of Literature in the Land of Language." Foreign Language Annals 23.4 (1990): 326-30.
• The author examines in detail the benefit between studying literary works and acquiring a foreign language competency and identifies six benefits to students' everyday lives from integrating literature into core language teaching.
• Shier, Janet H. "Integrating the Arts in the Foreign/Second Language Curriculum: Fusing the Affective and the Cognitive." Foreign Language Annals 23.4 (1990): 301-06.
• Author introduces Ofra Porat's integration of the Hebrew language with visual art at the University of Michigan.
• Shoenberg, Robert E. and Barbara Turlington, eds. "Next Steps for Languages Across the Curriculum: Prospects, Problems & Promise." Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1998.
• Short, Deborah J. How to Integrate Language and Content Instruction: A Training Manual. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1991.
• Short, Deborah J. "Integrating Language and Culture in Middle School American History Classes." Educational Practice Report. No. 8. Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning, 1994.
• Short, Deborah J. "Reading and 'Riting and ... Social Studies: Research on Integrated Language and Content in Secondary Classrooms." The Content-Based Classroom. Ed. Marguerite Ann Snow and Donna M. Brinton. New York: Longman, 1997.
• Snow, Marguerite Ann. "Trends and Issues in Content-Based Instruction." Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. Ed. William Grabe, C. Ferguson, R.B. Kaplan, G.R. Tucker and H.G. Widdowson. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
• Snow, Marguerite Ann and Donna M. Brinton. The Content-Based Classroom. New York: Longman, 1997.
• Stole, Carole. "Pedagogical Responses from Content Faculty: Teaching Content and Language in History." The Content-Based Classroom. Marguerite Ann Snow and Donna M. Brinton. New York: Longman, 1997.
• Stoller, Frederick L. and William Grabe. "A Six-T's Approach to Content-Based Instruction." The Content-Based Classroom. Marguerite Ann Snow. and Donna M. Brinton. New York: Longman, 1997.
• Straight, H. Stephen, ed. Languages Across the Curriculum. Translation Perspectives VII. Center for Research in Translation. State University of New York at Binghamton, 1994.
• Swain, M. "Manipulation and Complementing Content Teaching to Maximize Second Language Teaching." TESL Canada Journal 6 (1988): 68-83.
• Vars, Gordon F. Interdisciplinary Teaching in the Middle Grades: Why and How. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, 1987.
• Wignell, Peter. "Genre Across the Curriculum." Linguistics and Education: An International Research Journal 6.6.4 (1994): 355-72.

The true intent of this goal is not for teachers to make simple comparisons of languages and cultures. Rather, this goal is intended to provide an opportunity for students to analyze and reflect on the nature of languages and cultures. Teachers should find ways to encourage students to think about the complexity of cultures in order to make their own comparisons.

• Bialystok, E. "The Role of Linguistic Knowledge in Second Language Use." Studies in Second Language Learning 1 (1981): 31-45.
• Fantini, Alvino E. "Comparisons: Towards the Development of Intercultural Competence." Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories, and Practices. Ed. June K. Phillips. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1999. 165-217.
• Fantini, Alvino E. "Developing Intercultural Communicative Competence." TESOL-Spain Quarterly Newsletter (1994): 7-13.

This goal is designed to develop students' communication skills beyond the walls of the classroom. Technology can be a key component for this goal. LeLoup and Ponterio discuss several methods of using technology to achieve this goal.

• Antonek, Janis, et al. "Interactive Homework: Creating Connections between Home and School." Mosaic 2.3 (1995): 1-10.
• Bush, Michael D. and Robert M. Terry. Technology-Enhanced Language Learning. Lincolnwood, IL.: National Textbook Co., 1998.
• Haas, Mari and Margaret Reardon. "Communities of Learners: From New York to Chile." Collaborations: Meeting New Goals, New Realities. Ed. June K. Phillips. Northwest Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1977.
• LeLoup, Jean W. and Robert Ponterio. "Using the Internet for Foreign Language Learning." ERIC Review 6.1 (1998): 60-62.

• "Becoming the Best. Standards and Assessment Development in the Great City Schools." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED399327 (1996).
• This report is a summary of the information the Council of Great City Schools gathered in a survey of members about the development of standards and assessments in 1995. Some 77% of the 47 member districts responded to the survey, which asked about the impetus for standards and assessment development, the areas in which they are being developed and the uses to which they are being put.
• Baker, E.L. "What Probably Works in Alternative Assessment." Los Angeles: National Center for Research and Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, 1990.
• Blunck, Paula Marie. A Communication Competency Assessment Framework: A Literature Review of Communication Competency and Assessment. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Lab, 1997.
• Braun, Henry. "A Postmodern View of the Problem of Assessment." Orlando, FL: Language Research and Testing Colloquium, 1997.
• Brosnan, Patricia A. and Martin D. Hartog. "Approaching Standards for Mathematics Assessment." ERIC/CSMEE Digest. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED359069 (1993).
• Carlo, Maria S. and Ellen Skilton Sylvester. "Adult Second-Language Reading Research: How May It Inform Assessment and Instruction?" National Center on Adult Literacy, 1996.
• Craig, Elaine. "The National Standards Assessment: Implications for California Schools." Social Studies Review 35.1 (1995): 42-45.
• Davis, James J. "Readability Formulas and Schema Theory: A New Look at Predicting and Measuring the Difficulty of Foreign Language Tests." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED295491 (1988).
• Duncan, Greg, ed. "Colloquium on Teacher Preparation for Elementary School Foreign Language Programs: Proceedings (New York, New York, October 1993)." Goethe Institute, Munich, Germany.
• Dykstra-Pruim, Pennylyn. "Integrating a Series of Oral Assessments: Quick, Low-Stress Options for the Idealist." Die Unterrichtspraxis: Teaching German 30.1 (1997): 16-29.
• Genesee, Fred and J.A. Upshur. Classroom-Based Evaluation in Second Language Education. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
• Theoretical issues underlying the development of scales of language proficiency are examined.
• Herman, J.L., P.R. Aschbacher and L.Winters. A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992.
• Lantolf, J.P. and W. Frawley. "Oral-Proficiency Testing: A Critical Analysis." The Modern Language Journal 69.4 (1985): 337-45.
• Lewis, A.C. "No Shortcuts for Alternative Assessment." Research and Development Review 7.4 (1992).
• McDowell, Earl E. "An Exploratory Study of Interpersonal Communication Competence: Assessing Performance in Selection Interviews of Day and Extension Students." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Central States Communication Association. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED408646 (1997).
• North, Brian. "The Development of Descriptors on Scales of Language Proficiency." NFLC (National Foreign Language Center) Occasional Papers. Washington, D.C., Johns Hopkins University, 19193. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED365094 (1993).
• Peirce, Bonny Norton and Gail Stewart. "The Development of the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment." TESL Canada Journal 14.2 (1997): 17-31.
• Phillips, June K. "Testing." Research Within Reach II. Ed. V. Galloway and C. Herrin. Valdosta, GA: Southern Conference on Language Teaching, 1995.
• Phillips, June K. and Jamie B. Draper. "National Standards and Assessments: What Does It Mean for the Study of Second Languages in the Schools?" Meeting New Challenges on the Teaching of Foreign Language Classroom. Ed. Gale K. Crouse. Report of the Central States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1994. 1-8.
• Prince, Cynthia D. and Pascal D. Forgione, Jr. "Raising Standards and Measuring Performance Equitably: Challenges for the National Education Goals Panel and State Assessment Systems." The Issues of Language and Culture: Proceedings of a Symposium Convened by the Center for Applied Linguistics. 1993.
• Richardson, V. "Standards and Assessments: What is their Educational Potential?" Setting Standards and Educating Teachers: A National Conversation. M.E. Diez, V. Richardson and P.D. Pearson. Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1994. 15-36.
• Thornton, Julie A. "The Unified Language Testing Plan: Speaking Proficiency Test. Spanish and English Pilot Validation Studies." Report Number 1. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED410759 (1996).
• Thompson, Lynn. K-8 Foreign Language Assessment: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1995.
• Wiggins, Grant P. Educational Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve Student Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.
• Williams, Kelly and Laura Sharp. "Improving Student Oral Proficiency in Foreign Language through the Increased Use and Assessment of Oral Activities." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED412765 (1997).

• Abdal-Haqq, Ismat. "Professional Standards Development: Teacher Involvement." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED383693 (1995).
• Baratz-Snowden, Joan. "National Board for Professional Teaching Standards--Update." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED351336 (1992).
• Baratz-Snowden, Joan. "Assessment of Teachers: A View from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards." Theory into Practice 32.2 (1993): 82-85. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ467924 (1993).
• Baratz-Snowden, Joan. "NBPTS and Teacher Professional Development: The Policy Context." Portfolio (Summer 1994): 4-5.
• Darling-Hammond, Linda. "The Vision of Teacher Education Linked to Student Learning." Presentation at the National Academy on the Alignment of Standards and Teacher Development for Student Learning, 1998.
• Edmundson, Phyllis J. "Renewal Agendas and Accreditation Requirements: Contrasts and Correspondence." Journal of Teacher Education 44.3 (May-June 1993): 170-75. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ469815 (1993).
• Guntermann, Gail, ed. Developing Language Teachers for a Changing World. ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series No. 22. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1993.
• Hudelson, S. and C. Faltis. "Redefining Basic Teacher Education: Preparing Teachers to Transform Teaching." Developing Language Teachers for a Changing World. Ed. Gail Guntermann. ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series No. 22. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1993.
• Knop, C.K. "A Report on the ACTFL Summer Seminar: Teacher Education in the 1990s." Foreign Language Annals 24 (1991): 527-32.
• Murray, F.B. and D. Fallon. "The Reform of Teacher Education for the 21st Century: Project 30 Year One Report." Newark, DE: Project 30, 1989.
• National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Toward High and Rigorous Standards for the Teaching Profession. 2nd ed. Detroit, MI: NBPTS, 1989.
• Peyton, Kreeft. "Professional Development for Foreign Language Teachers." ERIC Review 6.1 (1998): 31-35.
• Phillips, June K. "Upgrading the Target Language Proficiency Levels of Foreign Language Teachers." ERIC Digest (1991).
• Renaissance Group. "Teachers for the New World, a Statement of Principles." Cedar Falls, IA: University of Northern Iowa, 1989.
• "State Legislatures Group Cites NBPTS Goals, Supports Efforts." Portfolio (Summer 1994): 1, 3.
• Suarez, Tanya M, D.A. Polen and N.C. Gottovi. "Autonomous Teacher Professional Standards Boards. Policy Brief." Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Educational Policy Research Center, 1994. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED372069 (1994).
• "Update on field test of National Board Certification." Portfolio (Summer 1994): 6.
• Wing, B.H. "The pedagogical imperative in language teacher education." Developing Language Teachers for a Changing World. Ed. Gail Guntermann. ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series No. 22. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co., 1993.
• Wise, A.E. "Teacher Professionalism: The Movement Has Begun." The ERIC Review 3.3 (1994): 12-13.

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