1	Basic Principles of Feminist Theory The relationship between men and women has almost always been unequal and oppressive. The extent of inequality and oppressiveness has varied greatly. All known societies have been patriarchal. Patriarchy is a system in which males dominate females. All major social institutions have been characterized by male dominance: Economy Political system Family Religion. Women have usually accepted their subordination to men. They have been socialized to believe ideologies that justify male domination.
2	Sisterhood Because all women are oppressed by patriarchal systems, they have profound common interests. All women are in some sense sisters. The social and biological reality of being female gives all women a fund of common experience. This common experience enables women to understand and communicate with each other. Women usually feel more comfortable in the company of other women than in the company of males. If women throw off the false consciousness arising from socialization into patriarchal culture, they quickly recognize the essential sisterhood of women.
3	Sex and Gender Sex and gender are not the same thing. Sex is a biological category. Gender is a social condition. Simone de Beauvoir writes : “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman”. Males and females are socialized to become masculine and feminine. These are social characteristics, not biological essences. The social requirement of being masculine or feminine is oppressive to males and females respectively. Compulsory masculinity is oppressive to males even though they use it to dominate women.
4	The Invisibility of Women Intellectual culture tends to make women invisible. The intellectual and artistic achievements of women are largely ignored. Some histories of art do not mention a single female artist. History is written as if women had no role in it and were hardly even present. Historians discuss a great length the violent war-making capacities of males. Sociology is all about men. The male experience is taken as the paradigm case. Sociological research has mainly studied males. Mainstream sociological theory largely ignores feminist theory.
5	Liberal Feminism Principal object is to gain equal rights for men and women. Modern societies should be reformed rather than transformed by revolutionary means. Only limited social change is necessary to achieve feminist goals. Women should enter all male dominated occupations. Women should engage in athletic and other cultural activities previously reserved for men Gender integration is vital to the achievement of feminist goals.
6	Liberal Feminism (continued) Legal change is a principal avenue for the emancipation of women. The structure of the state need not change. Betty Friedan (1921- ) National Organization of Women (NOW)
7	Radical Feminism Patriarchy is the most basic of all social institutions. The struggle against patriarchy is more important than the struggle against capitalism. Society is divided into sex-classes. Women constitute a sex-class. The primary social struggle is between women and men. All women are potential allies in the struggle against men and the patriarchal social institutions supported by men. Often favors a biological interpretation of masculinity and femininity. Men are difficult if not impossible to change.
8	Radical Feminism (continued) Women should not participate in male dominated organizations. Complete separation of the sexes may be necessary to achieve the goals of feminism. Shulamith Firestone (1945 - ) Germaine Greer (1939 - ) Kate Millett (1934 - )
9	Socialist Feminism Tries to integrate socialism and feminism. Feminist goals can only be achieved within a socialist society. Influenced by Marxist ideas. The struggle against capitalism and patriarchy are equally important. Emancipation of women cannot happen within a capitalist society. Existing socialist organizations are male dominated and must be reformed along feminist lines. Men and women must work together to eliminate both patriarchy and capitalism.
10	Socialist Feminism (continued) Patriarchy is caused by social structure and ideology. It is not the result of biological differences between men and women. Socialist feminism is particularly influential among European feminists. Less influential in the United States. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) Juliet Mitchell (1940 - ) Sheila Rowbotham (1943 - )
11	Simone de Beauvoir (1908 – 1986) French philosopher, novelist, and feminist. Long time personal and intellectual companion of Jean-Paul Sartre The Second Sex (1949)
12	Beauvoir’s Contribution to Feminist Theory The Second Sex (1949) is a founding document of modern feminism. Changed the lives of many women. Uses the Existentialist concept of the Self-Other relationship to analyze gender. The Self does not attribute subjectivity to the Other. Men have appropriated the position of the Self Women are understood as the objectified Other. Hence women cannot achieve full freedom and authenticity.
13	Beauvoir’s Contribution to Feminist Theory (continued) Critical of Marx, Freud, Darwin, Lenin, and most of western philosophy. Attacked the claim that femininity is an eternal essence of females. “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” Urges women to become free and independent. Economic independence is essential for personal and social freedom. Socialist revolution will be a decisive event in the emancipation of women.
14	Betty Friedan (1921 - ) American feminist and social critic. Cofounder of the National Organization of Women (1966) The Feminine Mystique (1963)
15	Betty Friedan’s Contribution to Feminist Theory Attacked the idea that cultivating femininity was a path to personal fulfillment for women. Identified a debilitating “feminine mystique” which had been sold to women by media, advertisers, therapists, and sociologists. The feminine mystique involved: Sexual passivity Acceptance of male domination Primary responsibility for domestic labor and child rearing Provision of maternal love for both children and adult males.
16	Betty Friedan’s Contribution to Feminist Theory (continued) Identified the “housewives syndrome” Discontent resulting from acceptance of feminine mystique. Wish for something more in life than prosperous suburban domesticity. Advocated education and professional training for women. This is the best path to personal happiness and fulfillment for women. Criticized the Radical Feminist thinkers for their extremism and irrelevance to the lives of most women.
17	Kate Millett (1934 - ) American feminist theorist and artist A founder of Radical Feminism Sexual Politics (1969)
18	Kate Millett’s Contribution to Feminist Theory Sexual relations are a form of politics. The sub-text of sexual interaction between males and females is who has power over whom. In a patriarchal society the contest for power crowds out the experience of pleasure in sexual relations. The objectification of the female body in media and literature functions as a justification for the sexual exploitation of women by men. A sexual revolution is needed to overthrow patriarchy and the economic exploitation of women. This revolution will require a profound change in male and female roles. What it means to be masculine and femine will need to change.
19	Kate Millett’s Contribution to Feminist Theory (continued) Many representations of the female body by male writers and artist actually express a fear and disgust of female sexuality. The subtext of pornography is: Aggression towards women. A violent desire to repress female sexuality. Males interpret the desire of women for status and power equality as an effort to castrate men. This is the meaning of Freud’s theory of penis envy.
20	Germaine Greer (1939 - ) Australian feminist and cultural critic. Practiced and advocated an individualistic version of Radical Feminism. The Female Eunuch (1970)
21	Germaine Greer’s Contributions to Feminist Theory A patriarchal and woman hating society has “castrated” women and created a female eunuch. Patriarchal society represses female sexuality. Sex becomes an alienated performance rather than expression of an inner desire Romantic love is largely a fraud and the romantic fiction, music, and films that promote it are trash. The chief means of liberating women is through full development of the pleasure principle. Women must learn to enjoy sex. Any and all forms of sexual expression are legitimate.
22	Germaine Greer’s Contributions to Feminist Theory (continued) In contrast other feminists, Greer de-emphasizes the idea of sisterhood The liberation of women will happen mainly through individual action rather than through a collective movement. Challenges the population concepts prevalent in Europe and the United States. Concern about overpopulation expresses a deep loathing for women’s fertility and childre.
23	Juliet Mitchell (1940 - ) British feminist and psychoanalyst Important thinker of Socialist Feminism Integrated feminism, Marxism, and Freudian theory. Women’s Estate (1971) Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974)
24	Juliet Mitchell’s Contributions to Feminist Theory The situation of women is different than that of any other social group. Women are essential to the human species. Women live in close proximity and on intimate terms with their exploiters. Psychoanalysis and Freudian thought can be an important tool for the emancipation of women. Psychoanalysis is a penetrating analysis of patriarchal society and its psychological roots. Psychoanalysis can help women free themselves from psychological domination by their fathers, brothers, and husbands. Mitchell is sharply critical of feminists like Betty Friedan and Germaine Greer who attack psychoanalytic theory. Initiated a dialog between feminism and psychoanalysis. This dialog is continued in the work of Nancy Chodorow among others.
25	Feminist Conflict Theory Jesse Bernard (1903-1996) Rae Lesser Blumberg Janet Saltzman Chafetz Heidi Hartman Nancy Hartsock
26	"Janet Saltzman Chafetz" Janet Saltzman Chafetz Chairperson Sociology Department University of Houston Masculine/Feminine or Human (1974) Feminist Sociology (1988) Gender Equity (1990)
27	Heidi Hartmann American feminist theorist and political economist. Research Professor in Women’s Studies, George Washington University “The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism” (1981)
28	Rae Lesser Blumberg American theorist of gender and stratification Northwestern University (Ph.D.) University of California, San Diego “A General Theory of Gender and Stratification” (1984)
29	Main Ideas of Feminist Conflict Theory Feminist theory should remain within the framework of scientific thought. Science can help women understand their situation and liberate themselves. Gender inequality should be analyzed as a specific form of social stratification. Like other forms of stratification, gender inequality generates conflict. Influenced by Marxist ideas. The root of gender inequality is economic. Men are able to dominate women because they control the means of production and the distribution of economic surplus. Economic power is the source of political power, social status, and control of family life.
30	How Women Can Be Liberated To achieve liberation women must acquire economic power. This will provide access to other forms of power Political power Ideological power Power within the family. The key to achieving economic power is the labor performed by women. Concept of strategic indispensability The economic power of women is directly related to its strategic indispensability.
31	What Makes the Labor of Women Strategically Indispensable Demand for the labor of women is greater than its supply. The productive labor of women is more important than their reproductive functions. Women have technical expertise. Women work without male supervision Women work in their own groups. The work groups of women are large and important to the productive process. The extent to which women are organized to defend their own interests. The extent to which women can avoid competition with other workers. Foreign workers, immigrants, other women
32	Kinship and Property Property is closely connected with economic power. Kinship is connected with the acquisition of property and hence with the economic power of women. Rules of inheritance. If women can inherit property they will gain independence and power. Rules of residence. If women live with or near their kinfolk they will gain more power. Rules of descent If rules of descent are matrilineal or bilateral women will gain more power. Matrilineal descent facilitates accumulation of property and authority by women.
33	Forms of Control Influenced By Economic Power Control over premarital, marital, and extramarital sexual activities. Control over fertility. Control over marriage and divorce. Control over household activities and responsibilities. Control over education. Control over pursuit of economic and other opportunities
34	Sex and Gender Stratification Gender stratification influences sexual relations between men and women. Women tend to experience sexual relations as a power interaction. All sex contains an element of coercion. Some ways in which women manage the power inequality in heterosexual sex: Limiting the amount of sex they engage in. Adopting ritualized forms of sexual interaction. Some women prefer lesbian sexual relations. There is less structural power inequality in lesbian sexual relations. Increase in the economic power of women makes lesbian relationships more acceptable.
35	Social Processes that Help Women Demographic processes Increase in the number of women relative to men. Technological processes Reductions in the physical strength requirements of work. Reductions in the physical mobility required by work. Technological innovations reducing household or child rearing labor Economic processes An expanding economy Full employment Political processes Absence of intense political conflict about issues other than gender
36	Social Processes that Help Women Organize Themselves Industrialization Increases non-domestic roles for women Urbanization Brings women together. Expansion of the middle classes Increases the number of women with time available for organization. Educational expansion Increases awareness of patriarchy as a system. Increases women’s sense of relative deprivation. Democratization Creates awareness that women should have political and other rights. Makes organization easier.
37	Other Social Processes that Help Women Organize Themselves Ideological ferment Tends to undermine conservative ideas about the role of women in society. Social movements for other causes (e.g. peace, civil rights, environment). Mobilizes women and makes them conscious of their own exploitation. Support by existing societal elites. Elites may recognize that gender inequality threatens their own position or their plans for changing society. Competition between elites may induce some to support a women’s movement.
38	Causes of Opposition to Movements for the Emancipation of Women Isolation of the women’s movement A large proportion of women accept traditional gender roles. Threats induced by the women’s movement. Many men feel their essential privileges are threatened by the women’s movement Conflict within the women’s movement. Alienates former supporters Generates ideological support for opposition to the emancipation of women.