To begin outlining an argument, first write a position statement: I am in favor of X. Then, compose a list of pros and cons, points for and against your position. Divide a piece of paper, or use your computer screen, and make three columns. In column 1 write everything you can think of that opposes your position. In column 2, write down the points that disprove the counterarguments in column 1. In column 3, write down all the evidence you can to support your position. In some cases, the same information will appear in columns 2 and 3.

For a starter, let's look at this example. The topic is busing minority students to majority schools. Some of the information you have found relates to costs to upgrade buildings, costs to bus, transit time, emergencies, children growing up without their traditional family/cultural values. Your position: busing minority students to majority schools denies equal education. Suppose the opposition claims busing is cheaper than building new buildings.

Counter ArgumentRebuttal/ReasonsEvidence

Busing is cheaper No; busing costs more than Indirect costs of

than building newbuilding new schools. Insurance; labor for

schools. Because variable school hours;

Busing has hidden costs. Busing opportunity cost for

has costs to third parties/taxpayers students who can't

You then look for details to support those general issues outlined in your columns. Notice the opposition between items in column 1 and column 2. Items in column 2 rebut the counterposition in column 1. If column 1 and column 2 don't meet "head on", your refutation will not serve to disprove the opposition's argument. The issues in column 3 then become the key points to support your side of the argument. So, what you have here is (1) counter argument, (2) refutation and reasoning, and (3) evidence.

Notice that this three-column example focuses only on the economic costs, because it starts from a money-oriented counterargument. All your material on noneconomic costs-emergencies, cultural values-will have to go in a different part of the essay, if you use it at all. If this seems to you to downplay the strongest parts of your argument, stop and think: how convinced will your money-minded opponents be by all your "soft," "touchy-feely" arguments about cultural values? Think about how the cultural issues are related to economics; necessity of a good education in order to get a good job is a place to begin.

In an argument formulated around a strong counterargument, you need to defeat your opponents on their own ground, as well as on your chosen turf. Check again for that "head on" meeting between column 1 and column 2, before you try to fit in your other points.

Many arguments do not begin with a counterargument but are, instead, "pro" arguments in favor of a change, or in favor of an issue. For example, we might consider arguments supporting a school bond issue. Perhaps the general population recognizes the need for improving schools, but they need to be persuaded to vote to raise taxes. In this case, the argument is not against improving schools, but in favor of passing the bond issue. Your argument must take a "pro" or "in favor" stance discussing why (1) the bond issue is necessary (even though most people know school improvements are needed, they may not think a bond issue is the way to accomplish that), (2) why this particular bond issue is the most appropriate, (3) and why people must "get out and vote" in favor of the bond issue.