The categorical proposition places the subject in a certain category: asserts its existence; identifies its attributes; verifies a definition. BEWARE: do not merely describe facts related to the subject. A categorical proposition attempts to relate substantive evidence and the definition of the category; to sharpen the analysis, contrast it with the counter proposition, which claims other or opposing notions about the subject. Example: Dinosaurs were warm-blooded animals. The counter proposition claims dinosaurs were cold-blooded lizards. Two attributes are under consideration: the character of the blood, and the character of the creature ("animal" or "lizard").

Arguments about causes rely on assumptions or shared beliefs about what can cause what. These arguments use elimination of possible causes to arrive at the correct cause; or infer differences in causes from differences in results-if X causes Y, and W is the same as X, then W also causes Y; or, if Y is caused by X, and Y is caused by W, and if V = Y, then X = W.

BEWARE: causation is NOT the same as correlation. Example: Fat people often eat a lot. Therefore, eating a lot of food causes people to become fat. This example is fallacious because just eating a lot of food may not make all people fat; some very thin athletes (and others) eat more food than some fat people. Another example: Most bald men are over 40. Therefore, when all these college age men get to be 40, they will be bald. This argument is also fallacious. To determine the cause of an individual's baldness, one must examine genetic background, medical history, and so forth.

Evaluative arguments measure an idea against set criteria that come from a categorical proposition or from predetermined outcomes. In some cases, the evaluator wants to state the case and appeal to the audience by defending and applying established criteria. Example: The grades at this university are too high. The average GPA for all students at CU is 2.88. Yet, the "average" grade, according to the university criteria for grades as specified in the course catalog, should be a C (2.0). Thus, the initial claim, which evaluates the grades according to the set criteria, is valid. Such an evaluation typically leads to proposals to remedy the improper outcome, in this case to call for grading according to the university's set criteria.

Not all evaluations necessarily lead to proposals for action to remedy a situation that doesn't meet the expected outcome. They can also lead to judgments or recommendations, as a review of a concert might evaluate the conductor as "too theatrical" (based on criteria for expected behavior of conductors) or the review of a book might conclude that the book is or isn't worth reading, which would encourage purchase or not.

These proposals prove (1) that something is broken and needs to be fixed; and either (2) that a proposed remedy will solve the problem; or (3) that a remedy proposed by someone else is not practical or acceptable. These arguments must first convince the audience that a problem exists and make the audience want action. Often, these arguments consider ethical situations: if the situation is wrong, then the solution must make it right. ("Wrong" and "Right" must be defined, i.e., in what way and according to what is the situation or proposal wrong or right?) Example: The GPA for all students at CU is too high, so the professors must become harder graders. Or, The GPA for all students at CU is too high, so the professors need to give students more work. The implied need here is for the GPA to be lower; that need must be proven before the writer presents solutions.

A refutation proves the direct opposite to a statement or claim. A strong expository or analytical position can be a refutation because it shows WHY another claim is untrue. An argumentative refutation clearly states the opposing claim and the reasons for it; then this refutation proves why that claim is not valid. Example: Claim-The state of Colorado has enough resources to enable all college age students to attend the university free. Refutation: The state of Colorado does not have enough resources to enable all college age students to attend the university free because...(here, all the reasons supporting the refutation are presented: not enough income, not enough capital to build educational infrastructure, the state has too many other expenses, and so forth-some dollars and cents data will obviously be needed here).